Peptidomimetic macrocycles

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides novel peptidomimetic macrocycles and methods of using such macrocycles for the treatment of viral disease.

CROSS REFERENCE

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/187,457, filed Jul. 1, 2015, U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/260,751, filed Nov. 30, 2015, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/311,112, filed Mar. 21, 2016, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Jul. 1, 2016, is named 35224-807_601_SL.txt and is 30,181 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

Seasonal influenza infection is a major health concern for first-world and developing nations alike. Each year in the United States, five- to twenty-percent of the population gets the flu, more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from flu complications, and about 36,000 people die from flu. Worldwide, influenza causes tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths each year. New strains of avian influenza that are transmissible to humans are a critical concern for global health because these flu strains could yield pandemic disease for which no immunity exists, potentially resulting in millions of fatalities. “Avian flu” refers to a pathogenic avian influenza subtype that is highly contagious among birds and causes high mortality among domestic poultry. Outbreaks of avian flu among poultry and wild birds are ongoing in a number of countries, and at least three subgroups of avian flu viruses have infected humans to date. While avian flu infections of humans are rare, and most cases have been associated with direct poultry contact during outbreaks among livestock, infection in humans is very serious when it does occur: to date, over half of all reported human cases have been fatal. Since first reported in Hong Kong in 1996, the World Health Organization has carefully tracked avian flu and instances of animal-to-human influenza transmission, with confirmed cases reported from China, Indonesia, and Southeast Asia; Pakistan; Iraq; Egypt; and elsewhere, with 385 cases resulting in 243 deaths worldwide. While there is no evidence of sustained human-to-human transmission, instances of human-to-human spread of avian flu may have occurred. Since all influenza viruses have the ability to rapidly mutate, there is considerable concern that avian flu may be able to infect humans more easily and become communicable from one person to another. Also, avian flu virus strains have not infected many humans worldwide, so there is little or no immune protection against these strains in the human population; therefore, an influenza pandemic could easily occur if sustained avian flu virus transmission were to develop.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, provided herein is a peptidomimetic macrocycle or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof comprising two non-natural amino acids connected by a macrocycle-forming linker and an amino acid sequence with at least about 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1b.

In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids 5 and 9. In some embodiments, the first macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids 5 and 12.

In one aspect, provided herein is a peptidomimetic macrocycle comprising an amino acid sequence with at least about 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1b and having Formula (I):

-   -   or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein:     -   each A, C, D, and E is independently an amino acid;     -   each B is independently an amino acid,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   -   each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or at         least one of R₁ and R₂ forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′         connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids;     -   each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker;     -   each L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene,         heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene,     -   heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n),         each being optionally substituted with R₅;         -   each R₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene,             heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene,             or heteroarylene;         -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂ or CONR₃,     -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆,         —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a         therapeutic agent;         -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,             arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent             moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent;     -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with a D residue;     -   each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with an E residue;     -   each v and w is independently an integer from 0-1000, for         example 0-500, 0-200, 0-100, 0-50, 0-30, 0-20, or 0-10;     -   u is an integer from 1-10, for example 1-5, 1-3 or 1-2;     -   each x, y and z is independently an integer from 0-10, for         example the sum of x+y+z is 2, 3, 5, 6 or 10; and     -   each n is independently an integer from 1-5.

In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids 5 and 9. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids 5 and 12.

In some embodiments, wherein the sum of x+y+z is 2, 3, 5 or 6. In some embodiments, the sum of x+y+z is 3 or 6. In some embodiments, x+y+z=2. In some embodiments, x+y+z=3. In some embodiments, wherein x+y+z=5. In some embodiments, x+y+z=6.

In one aspect, provided herein is peptidomimetic macrocycle having Formula (Ia):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, Xaa₁₂, and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, and Xaa₁₂, are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-X₉-Leu₁₀-Lys₁₁/Ala₁₁-Val₁₂/Ala₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₉ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 1); each D and E is independently an amino acid; each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′ connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids; each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v is independently is an integer from 1-1000; each w is independently an integer from 1-1000; and u is an integer from 1-100.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ia) is:

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ is independently an amino acid.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ia) is:

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ and Xaa₁₅ is independently an amino acid.

In one aspect, provided herein is a peptidomimetic macrocycle having Formula (Ib):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁ and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, and Xaa₁₁ are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-Phe₉-Leu₁₀-Lys₁₁/Ala₁₁-X₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₁₂ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 2); each D and E is independently an amino acid; each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′ connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids; each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v is independently is an integer from 1-1000; each w is independently an integer from 1-1000; and u is an integer from 1-100.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ib) is:

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ is independently an amino acid.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ib) is:

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ and Xaa₁₅ is independently an amino acid.

In some embodiments, each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula -L₁-L₂-,

or -L₁-S-L₂-S-L₃-; each L₁, L₂ and L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄-]_(n), each being optionally substituted with R₅; when L is not

or -L₁-S-L₂-S-L₃-, L₁ and L₂ are alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each R₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂ or CONR₃, each R₉ is independently alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl group, unsubstituted or optionally substituted with R_(a) and/or R_(b); each R_(a) and R_(b) is independently alkyl, OCH₃, CF₃, NH₂, CH₂NH₂, F, Br, I,

and each n is independently an integer from 1-5.

In some embodiments, u is 1.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises an amino acid sequence which is at least about 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to an amino acid sequence of Table 1b.

In some embodiments, each v is independently an integer from 0-200. In some embodiments, each of v is independently an integer from 0-100. In some embodiments, each v is independently an integer from 0-10, 0-15, 0-20, 0-25, or 0-30. In some embodiments, each v is 4.

In some embodiments, [D]_(v) is -Asn₄-Val₃-Glu₂-[Nle₁/Phe₁] (SEQ ID NO: 3). In some embodiments, [D]_(v) is -Asn₄-Val₃-Glu₂-Nle₁ (SEQ ID NO: 4). In some embodiments, [D]_(v) is -Asn₄-Val₃-Glu₂-Phe₁ (SEQ ID NO: 5).

In some embodiments, each w is independently an integer from 0-200. In some embodiments, each w is independently an integer from 0-10, 0-15, 0-20, 0-25, or 0-30. In some embodiments, each w is 3-8. In some embodiments, w is 1-3. In some embodiments, each w is 6-8. In some embodiments, each w is 3-6. In some embodiments, each w is 2-4. In some embodiments, each w is 3-5. In some embodiments, each w is 1. In some embodiments, each w is 2. In some embodiments, each w is 3. In some embodiments, each w is 4. In some embodiments, each w is 5. In some embodiments, each w is 6. In some embodiments, each w is 8.

In some embodiments, each of the first two amino acids represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first three amino acids represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first four amino acids represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain.

In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain.

In some embodiments, the first amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the second amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the fourth amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic side chain is a small hydrophobic side chain.

In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, D-Ala, Aib, Lys, Leu, Ser, Glu, and Gln. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, D-Ala, Aib, and Gln. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, D-Ala, and Aib, and Gln. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, D-Ala, and Aib. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, Aib, and Gln. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, Aib, and Gln. In some embodiments, each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala and Aib.

In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, cycloarylene, or heterocycloarylene, each being optionally substituted with R₅. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently alkylene, alkenylene or alkynylene. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently alkylene or alkenylene. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently C₃-C₁₀ alkylene or alkenylene. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently C₃-C₆ alkylene or alkenylene.

In some embodiments, L is alkylene, alkenylene, or alkynylene. In some embodiments, L is alkylene. In some embodiments, L is C₃-C₁₆ alkylene. In some embodiments, L is C₁₀-C₁₄ alkylene.

In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo. In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are H. In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl. In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, L is

In some embodiments, L is

In some embodiments, L is

In one aspect, provided herein is peptidomimetic macrocycle comprising an amino acid sequence of formula:

X₀-X₁-X₂-X₃-X₄-X₅-X₆-X₇-X₈-X₉-X₁₀-X₁₁-X₁₂-X₁₃-X₁₄- X₁₅-X₁₆-X₁₇-X₁₈ wherein:

-   X₀ is —H or an N-terminal capping group; -   X₁₈ is —OH, or a C-terminal capping group; -   X₁₆ and X₁₇ are absent or are amino acids; wherein     the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a macrocycle-forming linker     that connects a pair of crosslinked amino acids selected from the     group consisting of amino acids X₅ and X₉, and X₅ and X₁₂, and     wherein X₁-X₁₇ together with the crosslinked amino acids, form an     amino acid sequence with at least about 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%,     85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to a     sequence of Table 1b.

In some embodiments, X₀ is —H or an N-terminal capping group, for example acetyl or 5-FAM linked to the N-terminus of residue X₁; X₁ is Nle or Phe; X₂ is Asp; X₃ is Val; X₄ is Asn; X₆ is Thr; X₇ is Leu; X₈ is Leu; X₉ is Phe or a crosslinked amino acid; X₁₀ is Leu; X₁₁ Lys or Ala; X₁₂ is Ala, Val, or a crosslinked amino acid; X₁₃ is Aib, Ser, Ala, Glu, Gln, or Pro; X₁₄ is Aib or Ala; X₁₅ is Gln, Aib or Ala; X₁₆ is absent or Aib or Ala; X₁₇ is absent or D-Ala or Ala; X₁₈ is —OH, or a C-terminal capping group, for example a primary, secondary, or tertiary amino group, an alkyloxy or an aryloxy group, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, Xaa₁ is Phe. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₆ is Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₇ is Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₅ is Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₃ is Ser, Gln, Glu, or Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₂ is Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₁₁ is Ala. In some embodiments, Xaa₉ is Phe In some embodiments, X₁₆ and X₁₇ are absent. In some embodiments, X₁₆ is Ala or Aib. In some embodiments, X₁₇ is Ala or D-Ala.

In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids X₅ and X₉. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids X₅ and X₁₂. In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises an α-helix. In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In some embodiments, each amino acid connected by the macrocycle-forming linker is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid.

In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker is a straight chain alkenyl. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker is a straight chain alkenyl with 6 to 14 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the at least one macrocycle-forming linker is a straight chain alkenyl with 8 to 12 carbon atoms, for example 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12 carbon atoms

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle is capable of binding to a viral polymerase. In some embodiments, the polymerase is a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

In some embodiments, the macrocycle is capable of disrupting the assembly of subunits of a viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex. In some embodiments, the virus is influenza virus.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle is capable of competing with the binding of a peptide of the sequence MDVNPTLLFLKVPAQ (SEQ ID NO: 6) or MERIKELRNLM (SEQ ID NO: 7) to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

In one aspect, provided herein is a method of treating influenza infection in a subject comprising administering to the subject a peptidomimetic macrocycle disclosed herein.

In one aspect, provided herein is a method of preventing influenza infection in a subject comprising administering to the subject a peptidomimetic macrocycle disclosed herein.

In one aspect, provided herein is a method of inhibiting the activity of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of an influenza virus in a subject comprising administering to the subject a peptidomimetic macrocycle disclosed herein.

In one aspect, provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a peptidomimetic macrocycle disclosed herein, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In one aspect, provided herein is a peptidomimetic macrocycle or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein, for use in the treatment of an influenza infection.

In one aspect, provided herein is a peptidomimetic macrocycle or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein, for use in the manufacture of a medicament for treatment of an influenza infection.

In one aspect, provided herein is a use of a peptidomimetic macrocycle or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein, for the manufacture of a medicament for treatment of an influenza infection.

In one aspect, provided herein is a use of a peptidomimetic macrocycle or pharmaceutical disclosed herein, for the treatment of a subject with an influenza infection.

In one aspect, provided herein is a method of preparing a composition comprising a peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (IV):

comprising an amino acid sequence that has about 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1b, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises at least two non-natural amino acids connected by a macrocycle-forming linker, the method comprising treating a compound of Formula (V)

with a catalyst to result in the compound of Formula (IV)

-   wherein in the compound(s) of Formulae (IV) and (V) -   each A, C, D, and E is independently an amino acid; -   each B is independently an amino acid,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   each R₁ and R₂ are independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,     arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or     heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halogen; or at     least one of R₁ and R₂ forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′     connected to the α position of one of the D or E amino acids; -   each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,     heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl,     cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each     L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula     -L₁-L₂-; -   each L₁, L₂ and L₃ are independently alkylene, alkenylene,     alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,     cycloarylene, heterocycloarylene, or [—R₄—K—R_(4′)—]_(n), each being     optionally substituted with R₅; -   each R₄ and R_(4′) is independently alkylene, alkenylene,     alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,     arylene, or heteroarylene; -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂ or CONR₃; -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆,     —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a     therapeutic agent; -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,     cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a     radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,     cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,     cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or     part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; -   each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,     cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,     cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or     part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; -   each v and w is independently an integer from 1-1000; -   u is an integer from 1-10; -   each x, y and z is independently an integer from 0-10; -   each n is independently an integer from 1-5; -   each o is independently an integer from 1-15; -   each p is independently an integer from 1-15; and

In some embodiments, one or more of the amino acids A, C and/or B when B is an amino acid, present in the compounds of Formulae (IV) and (V), has a side chain bearing a protecting group. In some embodiments, the protecting group is a nitrogen atom protecting group. In some embodiments, the protecting group is a Boc group. In some embodiments, the side chain of the amino acid bearing the protecting group comprises a protected indole. In some embodiments, the amino acid bearing the protecting group on its side chain is tryptophan (W) that is protected by the protecting group on its indole nitrogen. In some embodiments, the amino acid bearing the protecting group on its side chain is tryptophan (W) that is protected on its indole nitrogen by a Boc group.

In some embodiments, after the step of contacting the compound of Formula (V) with catalyst the compound of Formula (IV) is

and is obtained in equal or higher amounts than a corresponding compound which is a Z isomer, wherein “(E)” indicates a trans double bond.

In some embodiments, after the step of contacting the compound of Formula (V) with catalyst the compound of Formula (IV) is obtained in a 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10-fold higher amount than the corresponding compound which is a Z isomer. In some embodiments, the catalyst is a ruthenium catalyst. In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of treating the compounds of Formula (IV) with a reducing agent or an oxidizing agent. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (V) is attached to a solid support. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (V) is not attached to a solid support. In some embodiments, the method further comprises removing the protecting group(s) from the compounds of Formula (IV). In some embodiments, the ring closing metathesis is conducted at a temperature ranging from about 20° C. to about 80° C.

Additionally, the invention provides a method of treating influenza virus infection in a subject comprising administering to the subject a peptidomimetic macrocycle. Also provided is a method of preventing infection by an influenza virus in a subject comprising administering to the subject a peptidomimetic macrocycle, or a method of inhibiting the activity of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of an influenza virus in a subject comprising administering to the subject such a peptidomimetic macrocycle.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 exemplifies a graph of mean body weight of mice over time after treatment with an exemplary peptidomimetic macrocycle (SP-6) at the indicated doses in replicate experiments.

FIG. 2 exemplifies a graph of plasma PK and simulated lung PK in a cyno monkey administered a single subcutaneous dose of 2.25 mg/kg of Aileron peptide 1 (AP1).

FIG. 3A exemplifies a graph of mouse survival over time after infection with influenza A virus and treatment with the indicated amounts of AP1 or Oseltamivir.

FIG. 3B exemplifies a graph of mouse mean body weight over time after infection with influenza A virus and treatment with the indicated amounts of AP1 or Oseltamivir.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Three classes of influenza viruses, A, B and C, are responsible for human flu, with influenza A and B viruses causing seasonal epidemics of disease almost every winter. Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on characteristics of two proteins, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), on the surface of the virus. There are 16 different hemagglutinin subtypes and 9 different neuraminidase subtypes, with H₁N₁ and H3N2 being the most common subtypes found in humans. The avian flu virus refers to influenza A H₅N₁. Influenza A is a negative-sense (3′ to 5′) single-stranded RNA virus. Its viral genome, which encodes 11 proteins (HA, NA, NP, M1, M2, NS1, NEP, PA, PB1, PB1-F2, PB2) in its RNA, cannot be translated into protein directly; rather, the virus depends on its RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe its genome to positive-sense RNA prior to translation. RNA-dependent RNA polymerases have no mammalian counterpart, which renders species selectivity less problematic in the development of therapeutics that target this enzyme. Other examples of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases include polioviral 3Dpol, vesicular stomatitis virus L, and hepatitis C virus NS5b; the latter is an active target for development of hepatitis C antiviral therapies. Unlike current flu targets (e.g., neuraminidase for Tamiflu), the influenza RNA polymerase is highly conserved and therefore less likely to suffer the resistance issues that current drugs face.

Recently, researchers reported the first atomic-resolution structural details of the influenza protein RNA polymerase, a critical enzyme for viral replication and a novel target for both therapeutic intervention and prophylaxis during influenza outbreaks (He, X., et al., Nature, 2008. 454: p. 1123-6; Obayashi, E., et al., Nature, 2008. 454: p. 1127-31). The influenza RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is a heterotrimer of three subunits, PA, PB1, and PB2, with the 3₁₀-helical N-terminal region of PB1 binding between the “jaws” of the PA protein. The PB1 helix is thought to be important for complex formation and nuclear transport and inhibits influenza A viral replication by interfering with polymerase activity. Recently, the PB2 subunit has also been shown to play an essential role in activity of the viral polymerase complex, for instance through contacts with the PB1 subunit. See Sugiyama et al, EMBO Journal, 2009, 28, 1803-1811. However, little is known about compounds capable of interfering with the binding and activity of these proteins. In general, there remains a need for therapeutic methods of treating viral diseases in which RNA-dependent RNA polymerases play a role, and for compositions and methods capable of modifying the activity such polymerases.

As used herein, the term “macrocycle” refers to a molecule having a chemical structure including a ring or cycle formed by at least 9 covalently bonded atoms.

As used herein, the term “peptidomimetic macrocycle” or “crosslinked polypeptide” refers to a compound comprising a plurality of amino acid residues joined by a plurality of peptide bonds and at least one macrocycle-forming linker which forms a macrocycle between a first naturally-occurring or non-naturally-occurring amino acid residue (or analog) and a second naturally-occurring or non-naturally-occurring amino acid residue (or analog) within the same molecule. Peptidomimetic macrocycle include embodiments where the macrocycle-forming linker connects the α carbon of the first amino acid residue (or analog) to the α carbon of the second amino acid residue (or analog). The peptidomimetic macrocycles optionally include one or more non-peptide bonds between one or more amino acid residues and/or amino acid analog residues, and optionally include one or more non-naturally-occurring amino acid residues or amino acid analog residues in addition to any which form the macrocycle. A “corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide” when referred to in the context of a peptidomimetic macrocycle is understood to relate to a polypeptide of the same length as the macrocycle and comprising the equivalent natural amino acids of the wild-type sequence corresponding to the macrocycle.

As used herein, the term “stability” refers to the maintenance of a defined secondary structure in solution by a peptidomimetic macrocycle as measured by circular dichroism, NMR or another biophysical measure, or resistance to proteolytic degradation in vitro or in vivo. Non-limiting examples of secondary structures contemplated herein are α-helices, 3₁₀ helices, β-turns, and β-pleated sheets.

As used herein, the term “helical stability” refers to the maintenance of helical structure by a peptidomimetic macrocycle as measured by circular dichroism or NMR. For example, in some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycles exhibit at least a 1.25, 1.5, 1.75 or 2-fold increase in helicity as determined by circular dichroism compared to a corresponding uncrosslinked macrocycle.

The term “amino acid” refers to a molecule containing both an amino group and a carboxyl group. Suitable amino acids include, without limitation, both the D- and L-isomers of the naturally-occurring amino acids, as well as non-naturally occurring amino acids prepared by organic synthesis or other metabolic routes. The term amino acid, as used herein, includes, without limitation, α-amino acids, natural amino acids, non-natural amino acids, and amino acid analogs.

The term “α-amino acid” refers to a molecule containing both an amino group and a carboxyl group bound to a carbon which is designated the α-carbon.

The term “β-amino acid” refers to a molecule containing both an amino group and a carboxyl group in a β configuration. The abbreviation “b-” prior to an amino acid represents a β configuration for the amino acid.

The term “naturally occurring amino acid” refers to any one of the twenty amino acids commonly found in peptides synthesized in nature, and known by the one letter abbreviations A, R, N, C, D, Q, E, G, H, I, L, K, M, F, P, S, T, W, Y and V.

The following table shows a summary of the properties of natural amino acids:

Side-chain 3-Letter 1-Letter Side-chain charge Hydropathy Amino Acid Code Code Polarity (pH 7.4) Index Alanine Ala A nonpolar neutral 1.8 Arginine Arg R polar positive −4.5 Asparagine Asn N polar neutral −3.5 Aspartic acid Asp D polar negative −3.5 Cysteine Cys C polar neutral 2.5 Glutamic acid Glu E polar negative −3.5 Glutamine Gln Q polar neutral −3.5 Glycine Gly G nonpolar neutral −0.4 Histidine His H polar positive −3.2 (10%) neutral (90%) Isoleucine Ile I nonpolar neutral 4.5 Leucine Leu L nonpolar neutral 3.8 Lysine Lys K polar positive −3.9 Methionine Met M nonpolar neutral 1.9 Phenylalanine Phe F nonpolar neutral 2.8 Proline Pro P nonpolar neutral −1.6 Serine Ser S polar neutral −0.8 Threonine Thr T polar neutral −0.7 Tryptophan Trp W nonpolar neutral −0.9 Tyrosine Tyr Y polar neutral −1.3 Valine Val V nonpolar neutral 4.2

“Hydrophobic amino acids” include small hydrophobic amino acids and large hydrophobic amino acids. “Small hydrophobic amino acids” are glycine, alanine, proline, and analogs thereof. “Large hydrophobic amino acids” are valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and analogs thereof. “Polar amino acids” are serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, and analogs thereof. “Charged amino acids” include positively charged amino acids and negatively charged amino acids. “Positively charged amino acids” include lysine, arginine, histidine, and analogs thereof. “Negatively charged amino acids” include aspartate, glutamate, and analogs thereof.

The term “amino acid analog” refers to a molecule which is structurally similar to an amino acid and which can be substituted for an amino acid in the formation of a peptidomimetic macrocycle. Amino acid analogs include, without limitation, β-amino acids and amino acids where the amino or carboxy group is substituted by a similarly reactive group (e.g., substitution of the primary amine with a secondary or tertiary amine, or substitution of the carboxy group with an ester).

The term “non-natural amino acid” refers to an amino acid which is not one of the twenty amino acids commonly found in peptides synthesized in nature, and known by the one letter abbreviations A, R, N, C, D, Q, E, G, H, I, L, K, M, F, P, S, T, W, Y and V. Non-natural amino acids or amino acid analogs include, without limitation, structures according to the following:

Amino acid analogs include β-amino acid analogs. Examples of β-amino acid analogs include, but are not limited to, the following: cyclic β-amino acid analogs; β-alanine; (R)-β-phenylalanine; (R)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-isoquinoline-3-acetic acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(1-naphthyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-furyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-naphthyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-thienyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(2-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3,4-difluorophenyl)butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-benzothienyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-pyridyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-thienyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-bromophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-iodophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-nitrophenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-pyridyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (R)-3-amino-4-pentafluoro-phenylbutyric acid; (R)-3-amino-5-hexenoic acid; (R)-3-amino-5-hexynoic acid; (R)-3-amino-5-phenylpentanoic acid; (R)-3-amino-6-phenyl-5-hexenoic acid; (S)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-isoquinoline-3-acetic acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(1-naphthyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-furyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-naphthyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-thienyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(2-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3,4-difluorophenyl)butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-benzothienyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-pyridyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-thienyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-bromophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-chlorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-cyanophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-iodophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-methylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-nitrophenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-pyridyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyric acid; (S)-3-amino-4-pentafluoro-phenylbutyric acid; (S)-3-amino-5-hexenoic acid; (S)-3-amino-5-hexynoic acid; (S)-3-amino-5-phenylpentanoic acid; (S)-3-amino-6-phenyl-5-hexenoic acid; 1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine-3-carboxylic acid; 1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine-4-carboxylic acid; 3-amino-3-(2-chlorophenyl)-propionic acid; 3-amino-3-(2-thienyl)-propionic acid; 3-amino-3-(3-bromophenyl)-propionic acid; 3-amino-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-propionic acid; 3-amino-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-propionic acid; 3-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid; 3-aminoadipic acid; D-β-phenylalanine; β-leucine; L-β-homoalanine; L-β-homoaspartic acid γ-benzyl ester; L-β-homoglutamic acid δ-benzyl ester; L-β-homoisoleucine; L-β-homoleucine; L-β-homomethionine; L-β-homophenylalanine; L-β-homoproline; L-β-homotryptophan; L-β-homovaline; L-Nω-benzyloxycarbonyl-β-homolysin; Nω-L-β-homoarginine; O-benzyl-L-β-homohydroxyproline; O-benzyl-L-β-homoserine; O-benzyl-L-β-homothreonine; O-benzyl-L-β-homotyrosine; γ-trityl-L-β-homoasparagine; (R)-β-phenylalanine; L-β-homoaspartic acid γ-t-butyl ester; L-β-homoglutamic acid δ-t-butyl ester; L-Nω-β-homolysine; Nδ-trityl-L-β-homoglutamine; Nω-2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-dihydrobenzofuran-5-sulfonyl-L-β-homoarginine; O-t-butyl-L-β-homohydroxy-proline; O-t-butyl-L-β-homoserine; O-t-butyl-L-β-homothreonine; O-t-butyl-L-β-homotyrosine; 2-aminocyclopentane carboxylic acid; and 2-aminocyclohexane carboxylic acid.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of alanine, valine, glycine or leucine. Examples of amino acid analogs of alanine, valine, glycine, and leucine include, but are not limited to, the following: α-methoxyglycine; α-allyl-L-alanine; α-aminoisobutyric acid; α-methyl-leucine; β-(1-naphthyl)-D-alanine; β-(1-naphthyl)-L-alanine; β-(2-naphthyl)-D-alanine; β-(2-naphthyl)-L-alanine; β-(2-pyridyl)-D-alanine; β-(2-pyridyl)-L-alanine; β-(2-thienyl)-D-alanine; β-(2-thienyl)-L-alanine; β-(3-benzothienyl)-D-alanine; β-(3-benzothienyl)-L-alanine; β-(3-pyridyl)-D-alanine; β-(3-pyridyl)-L-alanine; β-(4-pyridyl)-D-alanine; β-(4-pyridyl)-L-alanine; β-chloro-L-alanine; β-cyano-L-alanine; β-cyclohexyl-D-alanine; β-cyclohexyl-L-alanine; β-cyclopenten-1-yl-alanine; β-cyclopentyl-alanine; β-cyclopropyl-L-Ala-OH.dicyclohexylammonium salt; β-t-butyl-D-alanine; β-t-butyl-L-alanine; γ-aminobutyric acid; L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; 2,4-dinitro-phenylglycine; 2,5-dihydro-D-phenylglycine; 2-amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutyric acid; 2-fluoro-phenylglycine; 3-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid; 3-fluoro-valine; 4,4,4-trifluoro-valine; 4,5-dehydro-L-leu-OH.dicyclohexylammonium salt; 4-fluoro-D-phenylglycine; 4-fluoro-L-phenylglycine; 4-hydroxy-D-phenylglycine; 5,5,5-trifluoro-leucine; 6-aminohexanoic acid; cyclopentyl-D-Gly-OH.dicyclohexylammonium salt; cyclopentyl-Gly-OH.dicyclohexylammonium salt; D-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; D-α-aminobutyric acid; D-α-t-butylglycine; D-(2-thienyl)glycine; D-(3-thienyl)glycine; D-2-aminocaproic acid; D-2-indanylglycine; D-allylglycine.dicyclohexylammonium salt; D-cyclohexylglycine; D-norvaline; D-phenylglycine; β-aminobutyric acid; β-aminoisobutyric acid; (2-bromophenyl)glycine; (2-methoxyphenyl)glycine; (2-methylphenyl)glycine; (2-thiazoyl)glycine; (2-thienyl)glycine; 2-amino-3-(dimethylamino)-propionic acid; L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; L-α-aminobutyric acid; L-α-t-butylglycine; L-(3-thienyl)glycine; L-2-amino-3-(dimethylamino)-propionic acid; L-2-aminocaproic acid dicyclohexyl-ammonium salt; L-2-indanylglycine; L-allylglycine.dicyclohexyl ammonium salt; L-cyclohexylglycine; L-phenylglycine; L-propargylglycine; L-norvaline; N-α-aminomethyl-L-alanine; D-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; L-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; β-cyclopropyl-L-alanine; (N-β-(2,4-dinitrophenyl))-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; (N-β-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-D-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; (N-β-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; (N-β-4-methyltrityl)-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; (N-β-allyloxycarbonyl)-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid; (N-γ-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-D-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; (N-γ-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-L-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; (N-γ-4-methyltrityl)-D-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; (N-γ-4-methyltrityl)-L-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; (N-γ-allyloxycarbonyl)-L-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; D-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid; 4,5-dehydro-L-leucine; cyclopentyl-D-Gly-OH; cyclopentyl-Gly-OH; D-allylglycine; D-homocyclohexylalanine; L-1-pyrenylalanine; L-2-aminocaproic acid; L-allylglycine; L-homocyclohexylalanine; and N-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-Bzl)-Gly-OH.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of arginine or lysine. Examples of amino acid analogs of arginine and lysine include, but are not limited to, the following: citrulline; L-2-amino-3-guanidinopropionic acid; L-2-amino-3-ureidopropionic acid; L-citrulline; Lys(Me)₂-OH; Lys(N₃)—OH; Nδ-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-ornithine; Nω-nitro-D-arginine; Nω-nitro-L-arginine; α-methyl-ornithine; 2,6-diaminoheptanedioic acid; L-ornithine; (Nδ-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxo-cyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-D-ornithine; (Nδ-1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxo-cyclohex-1-ylidene)ethyl)-L-ornithine; (Nδ-4-methyltrityl)-D-ornithine; (Nδ-4-methyltrityl)-L-ornithine; D-ornithine; L-ornithine; Arg(Me)(Pbf)-OH; Arg(Me)₂-OH (asymmetrical); Arg(Me)₂-OH (symmetrical); Lys(ivDde)-OH; Lys(Me)₂-OH.HCl; Lys(Me₃)-OH chloride; Nω-nitro-D-arginine; and Nω-nitro-L-arginine.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of aspartic or glutamic acids. Examples of amino acid analogs of aspartic and glutamic acids include, but are not limited to, the following: α-methyl-D-aspartic acid; α-methyl-glutamic acid; α-methyl-L-aspartic acid; γ-methylene-glutamic acid; (N-γ-ethyl)-L-glutamine; [N-α-(4-aminobenzoyl)]-L-glutamic acid; 2,6-diaminopimelic acid; L-α-aminosuberic acid; D-2-aminoadipic acid; D-α-aminosuberic acid; α-aminopimelic acid; iminodiacetic acid; L-2-aminoadipic acid; threo-β-methyl-aspartic acid; γ-carboxy-D-glutamic acid γ,γ-di-t-butyl ester; γ-carboxy-L-glutamic acid γ,γ-di-t-butyl ester; Glu(OA11)-OH; L-Asu(OtBu)-OH; and pyroglutamic acid.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of cysteine and methionine. Examples of amino acid analogs of cysteine and methionine include, but are not limited to, Cys(farnesyl)-OH, Cys(farnesyl)-OMe, α-methyl-methionine, Cys(2-hydroxyethyl)-OH, Cys(3-aminopropyl)-OH, 2-amino-4-(ethylthio)butyric acid, buthionine, buthioninesulfoximine, ethionine, methionine methylsulfonium chloride, selenomethionine, cysteic acid, [2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl]-DL-penicillamine, [2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl]-L-cysteine, 4-methoxybenzyl-D-penicillamine, 4-methoxybenzyl-L-penicillamine, 4-methylbenzyl-D-penicillamine, 4-methylbenzyl-L-penicillamine, benzyl-D-cysteine, benzyl-L-cysteine, benzyl-DL-homocysteine, carbamoyl-L-cysteine, carboxyethyl-L-cysteine, carboxymethyl-L-cysteine, diphenylmethyl-L-cysteine, ethyl-L-cysteine, methyl-L-cysteine, t-butyl-D-cysteine, trityl-L-homocysteine, trityl-D-penicillamine, cystathionine, homocystine, L-homocystine, (2-aminoethyl)-L-cysteine, seleno-L-cystine, cystathionine, Cys(StBu)-OH, and acetamidomethyl-D-penicillamine.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of phenylalanine and tyrosine. Examples of amino acid analogs of phenylalanine and tyrosine include β-methyl-phenylalanine, β-hydroxyphenylalanine, α-methyl-3-methoxy-DL-phenylalanine, α-methyl-D-phenylalanine, α-methyl-L-phenylalanine, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid, 2,4-dichloro-phenylalanine, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-D-phenylalanine, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-L-phenylalanine, 2-bromo-D-phenylalanine, 2-bromo-L-phenylalanine, 2-chloro-D-phenylalanine, 2-chloro-L-phenylalanine, 2-cyano-D-phenylalanine, 2-cyano-L-phenylalanine, 2-fluoro-D-phenylalanine, 2-fluoro-L-phenylalanine, 2-methyl-D-phenylalanine, 2-methyl-L-phenylalanine, 2-nitro-D-phenylalanine, 2-nitro-L-phenylalanine, 2; 4; 5-trihydroxy-phenylalanine, 3,4,5-trifluoro-D-phenylalanine, 3,4,5-trifluoro-L-phenylalanine, 3,4-dichloro-D-phenylalanine, 3,4-dichloro-L-phenylalanine, 3,4-difluoro-D-phenylalanine, 3,4-difluoro-L-phenylalanine, 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine, 3,4-dimethoxy-L-phenylalanine, 3,5,3′-triiodo-L-thyronine, 3,5-diiodo-D-tyrosine, 3,5-diiodo-L-tyrosine, 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)-D-phenylalanine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)-L-phenylalanine, 3-amino-L-tyrosine, 3-bromo-D-phenylalanine, 3-bromo-L-phenylalanine, 3-chloro-D-phenylalanine, 3-chloro-L-phenylalanine, 3-chloro-L-tyrosine, 3-cyano-D-phenylalanine, 3-cyano-L-phenylalanine, 3-fluoro-D-phenylalanine, 3-fluoro-L-phenylalanine, 3-fluoro-tyrosine, 3-iodo-D-phenylalanine, 3-iodo-L-phenylalanine, 3-iodo-L-tyrosine, 3-methoxy-L-tyrosine, 3-methyl-D-phenylalanine, 3-methyl-L-phenylalanine, 3-nitro-D-phenylalanine, 3-nitro-L-phenylalanine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine, 4-(trifluoromethyl)-D-phenylalanine, 4-(trifluoromethyl)-L-phenylalanine, 4-amino-D-phenylalanine, 4-amino-L-phenylalanine, 4-benzoyl-D-phenylalanine, 4-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine, 4-bis(2-chloroethyl)amino-L-phenylalanine, 4-bromo-D-phenylalanine, 4-bromo-L-phenylalanine, 4-chloro-D-phenylalanine, 4-chloro-L-phenylalanine, 4-cyano-D-phenylalanine, 4-cyano-L-phenylalanine, 4-fluoro-D-phenylalanine, 4-fluoro-L-phenylalanine, 4-iodo-D-phenylalanine, 4-iodo-L-phenylalanine, homophenylalanine, thyroxine, 3,3-diphenylalanine, thyronine, ethyl-tyrosine, and methyl-tyrosine.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of proline. Examples of amino acid analogs of proline include, but are not limited to, 3,4-dehydro-proline, 4-fluoro-proline, cis-4-hydroxy-proline, thiazolidine-2-carboxylic acid, and trans-4-fluoro-proline.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of serine and threonine. Examples of amino acid analogs of serine and threonine include, but are not limited to, 3-amino-2-hydroxy-5-methylhexanoic acid, 2-amino-3-hydroxy-4-methylpentanoic acid, 2-amino-3-ethoxybutanoic acid, 2-amino-3-methoxybutanoic acid, 4-amino-3-hydroxy-6-methylheptanoic acid, 2-amino-3-benzyloxypropionic acid, 2-amino-3-benzyloxypropionic acid, 2-amino-3-ethoxypropionic acid, 4-amino-3-hydroxybutanoic acid, and α-methylserine.

Amino acid analogs include analogs of tryptophan Examples of amino acid analogs of tryptophan include, but are not limited to, the following: α-methyl-tryptophan; β-(3-benzothienyl)-D-alanine; β-(3-benzothienyl)-L-alanine; 1-methyl-tryptophan; 4-methyl-tryptophan; 5-benzyloxy-tryptophan; 5-bromo-tryptophan; 5-chloro-tryptophan; 5-fluoro-tryptophan; 5-hydroxy-tryptophan; 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan; 5-methoxy-tryptophan; 5-methoxy-L-tryptophan; 5-methyl-tryptophan; 6-bromo-tryptophan; 6-chloro-D-tryptophan; 6-chloro-tryptophan; 6-fluoro-tryptophan; 6-methyl-tryptophan; 7-benzyloxy-tryptophan; 7-bromo-tryptophan; 7-methyl-tryptophan; D-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-norharman-3-carboxylic acid; 6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronorharman-1-carboxylic acid; 7-azatryptophan; L-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-norharman-3-carboxylic acid; 5-methoxy-2-methyl-tryptophan; and 6-chloro-L-tryptophan.

In some embodiments, amino acid analogs are racemic. In some embodiments, the D isomer of the amino acid analog is used. In some embodiments, the L isomer of the amino acid analog is used. In other embodiments, the amino acid analog comprises chiral centers that are in the R or S configuration. In still other embodiments, the amino group(s) of a β-amino acid analog is substituted with a protecting group, e.g., tert-butyloxycarbonyl (BOC group), 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (FMOC), tosyl, and the like. In yet other embodiments, the carboxylic acid functional group of a β-amino acid analog is protected, e.g., as its ester derivative. In some embodiments the salt of the amino acid analog is used.

A “non-essential” amino acid residue is a residue that can be altered from the wild-type sequence of a polypeptide without abolishing or substantially abolishing its essential biological or biochemical activity (e.g., receptor binding or activation). An “essential” amino acid residue is a residue that, when altered from the wild-type sequence of the polypeptide, results in abolishing or substantially abolishing the polypeptide's essential biological or biochemical activity.

A “conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which the amino acid residue is replaced with an amino acid residue having a similar side chain. Families of amino acid residues having similar side chains have been defined in the art. These families include amino acids with basic side chains (e.g., K, R, H), acidic side chains (e.g., D, E), uncharged polar side chains (e.g., G, N, Q, S, T, Y, C), nonpolar side chains (e.g., A, V, L, I, P, F, M, W), β-branched side chains (e.g., T, V, I) and aromatic side chains (e.g., Y, F, W, H). Thus, a predicted nonessential amino acid residue in a polypeptide, e.g., is replaced with another amino acid residue from the same side chain family. Other examples of acceptable substitutions are substitutions based on isosteric considerations (e.g., norleucine for methionine) or other properties (e.g., 2-thienylalanine for phenylalanine, or 6-Cl-tryptophan for tryptophan).

The term “capping group” refers to the chemical moiety occurring at either the carboxy or amino terminus of the polypeptide chain of the subject peptidomimetic macrocycle. The capping group of a carboxy terminus includes an unmodified carboxylic acid (i.e., —COOH) or a carboxylic acid with a substituent. For example, the carboxy terminus can be substituted with an amino group to yield a carboxamide at the C-terminus. Various substituents include but are not limited to primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, including pegylated secondary amines Representative secondary amine capping groups for the C-terminus include:

The capping group of an amino terminus includes an unmodified amine (i.e., —NH₂) or an amine with a substituent. For example, the amino terminus can be substituted with an acyl group to yield a carboxamide at the N-terminus Various substituents include but are not limited to substituted acyl groups, including C₁-C₆ carbonyls, C₇-C₃₀ carbonyls, and pegylated carbamates. Representative capping groups for the N-terminus include, but are not limited to, 4-FBzl (4-fluoro-benzyl) and the following:

The term “member” as used herein in conjunction with macrocycles or macrocycle-forming linkers refers to the atoms that form or can form the macrocycle, and excludes substituent or side chain atoms. By analogy, cyclodecane, 1,2-difluoro-decane and 1,3-dimethyl cyclodecane are all considered ten-membered macrocycles as the hydrogen (—H) or fluoro substituents or methyl side chains do not participate in forming the macrocycle.

The symbol “

” when used as part of a molecular structure refers to a single bond or a trans or cis double bond.

The term “amino acid side chain” refers to a moiety attached to the α-carbon (or another backbone atom) in an amino acid. For example, the amino acid side chain for alanine is methyl, the amino acid side chain for phenylalanine is phenylmethyl, the amino acid side chain for cysteine is thiomethyl, the amino acid side chain for aspartate is carboxymethyl, the amino acid side chain for tyrosine is 4-hydroxyphenylmethyl, etc. Other non-naturally occurring amino acid side chains are also included, e.g., those that occur in nature (e.g., an amino acid metabolite) or those that are made synthetically (e.g., an α,α di-substituted amino acid).

The term “α,α di-substituted amino acid” refers to a molecule or moiety containing both an amino group and a carboxyl group bound to a carbon (the α-carbon) that is attached to two natural or non-natural amino acid side chains.

The term “polypeptide” encompasses two or more naturally or non-naturally-occurring amino acids joined by a covalent bond (e.g., an amide bond). Polypeptides as described herein include full length proteins (e.g., fully processed proteins) as well as shorter amino acid sequences (e.g., fragments of naturally-occurring proteins or synthetic polypeptide fragments).

The term “first C-terminal amino acid” refers to the amino acid which is closest to the C-terminus. The term “second C-terminal amino acid” refers to the amino acid attached at the N-terminus of the first C-terminal amino acid.

The term “macrocyclization catalyst” or “macrocycle-forming catalyst” as used herein refers to any catalyst which can be used to prepare a peptidomimetic macrocycle by mediating the reaction between two reactive groups. Reactive groups can be, for example, an azide and alkyne, in which case macrocyclization catalysts include, without limitation, Cu catalysts such as catalysts which provide a reactive Cu(I) species, such as CuBr, CuI or CuOTf, as well as Cu(II) salts such as Cu(CO₂CH₃)₂, CuSO₄, and CuCl₂ that can be converted in situ to an active Cu(I) catalyst by the addition of a reducing agent such as ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate. Macrocyclization catalysts can additionally include, for example, Ru catalysts known in the art such as Cp*RuCl(PPh₃)₂, [Cp*RuCl]₄ or other Ru catalysts which can provide a reactive Ru(II) species. In other cases, the reactive groups are terminal olefins. In such embodiments, the macrocyclization catalysts or macrocycle-forming catalysts are metathesis catalysts including, but not limited to, stabilized, late transition metal carbene complex catalysts such as Group VIII transition metal carbene catalysts. For example, such catalysts are Ru and Os metal centers having a +2 oxidation state, an electron count of 16 and pentacoordinated. In other examples, catalysts have W or Mo centers. Various catalysts are disclosed in Grubbs et al., “Ring Closing Metathesis and Related Processes in Organic Synthesis” Acc. Chem. Res. 1995, 28, 446-452, U.S. Pat. No. 5,811,515; U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,397; U.S. Application No. 2011/0065915; U.S. Application No. 2011/0245477; Yu et al., “Synthesis of Macrocyclic Natural Products by Catalyst-Controlled Stereoselective Ring-Closing Metathesis,” Nature 2011, 479, 88; and Peryshkov et al., “Z-Selective Olefin Metathesis Reactions Promoted by Tungsten Oxo Alkylidene Complexes,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 20754. In yet other cases, the reactive groups are thiol groups. In such embodiments, the macrocyclization catalyst is, for example, a linker functionalized with two thiol-reactive groups such as halogen groups.

The term “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine or a radical thereof.

The term “alkyl” refers to a hydrocarbon chain that is a straight chain or branched chain, containing the indicated number of carbon atoms. For example, C₁-C₁₀ indicates that the group has from 1-10 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it. In the absence of any numerical designation, “alkyl” is a chain (straight or branched) having 1-20 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it.

The term “alkylene” refers to a divalent alkyl (i.e., —R—).

The term “alkenyl” refers to a hydrocarbon chain that is a straight chain or branched chain having one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. The alkenyl moiety contains the indicated number of carbon atoms. For example, C₂-C₁₀ indicates that the group has from 2-10 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it. The term “lower alkenyl” refers to a C₂-C₆ alkenyl chain. In the absence of any numerical designation, “alkenyl” is a chain (straight or branched) having 2-20 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it.

The term “alkynyl” refers to a hydrocarbon chain that is a straight chain or branched chain having one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. The alkynyl moiety contains the indicated number of carbon atoms. For example, C₂-C₁₀ indicates that the group has from 2-10 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it. The term “lower alkynyl” refers to a C₂-C₆ alkynyl chain. In the absence of any numerical designation, “alkynyl” is a chain (straight or branched) having 2-20 (inclusive) carbon atoms in it.

The term “aryl” refers to a monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic ring system wherein 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or more atoms of each ring are substituted by a substituent. Exemplary aryls include 6-carbon monocyclic or 10-carbon bicyclic aromatic ring systems. Examples of aryl groups include phenyl, naphthyl and the like. The term “arylalkoxy” refers to an alkoxy substituted with aryl.

“Arylalkyl” refers to an aryl group, as defined above, wherein one of the aryl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with an alkyl group (e.g., a C₁-C₅ alkyl group) as defined above. Representative examples of an arylalkyl group include, but are not limited to, 2-methylphenyl, 3-methylphenyl, 4-methylphenyl, 2-ethylphenyl, 3-ethylphenyl, 4-ethylphenyl, 2-propylphenyl, 3-propylphenyl, 4-propylphenyl, 2-butylphenyl, 3-butylphenyl, 4-butylphenyl, 2-pentylphenyl, 3-pentylphenyl, 4-pentylphenyl, 2-isopropylphenyl, 3-isopropylphenyl, 4-isopropylphenyl, 2-isobutylphenyl, 3-isobutylphenyl, 4-isobutylphenyl, 2-sec-butylphenyl, 3-sec-butylphenyl, 4-sec-butylphenyl, 2-t-butylphenyl, 3-t-butylphenyl and 4-t-butylphenyl.

“Arylamido” refers to an aryl group, as defined above, wherein one of the aryl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with one or more —C(O)NH₂ groups. Representative examples of an arylamido group include 2-C(O)NH₂-phenyl, 3-C(O)NH₂-phenyl, 4-C(O)NH₂-phenyl, 2-C(O)NH₂-pyridyl, 3-C(O)NH₂-pyridyl, and 4-C(O)NH₂-pyridyl,

“Alkylheterocycle” refers an alkyl group (e.g., a C₁-C₅ alkyl group), as defined above, wherein one of the C₁-C₅ alkyl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with a heterocycle. Representative examples of an alkylheterocycle group include, but are not limited to, —CH₂CH₂-morpholine, —CH₂CH₂-piperidine, —CH₂CH₂CH₂-morpholine, and —CH₂CH₂CH₂-imidazole.

“Alkylamido” refers to an alkyl group (e.g., a C₁-C₅ alkyl group), as defined above, wherein one of the alkyl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with a —C(O)NH₂ group. Representative examples of an alkylamido group include, but are not limited to, —CH₂—C(O)NH₂, —CH₂CH₂—C(O)NH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O)NH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O)NH₂, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂C(O)NH₂, —CH₂CH(C(O)NH₂)CH₃, —CH₂CH(C(O)NH₂)CH₂CH₃, —CH(C(O)NH₂)CH₂CH₃, —C(CH₃)₂CH₂C(O)NH₂, —CH₂—CH₂—NH—C(O)—CH₃, —CH₂—CH₂—NH—C(O)—CH₃—CH3, and —CH₂—CH₂—NH—C(O)—CH═CH₂.

“Alkanol” refers to an alkyl group (e.g., a C₁-C₅ alkyl group), as defined above, wherein one of the alkyl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with a hydroxyl group. Representative examples of an alkanol group include, but are not limited to, —CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH(OH)CH₃, —CH₂CH(OH)CH₂CH₃, —CH(OH)CH₃ and —C(CH₃)₂CH₂OH.

“Alkylcarboxy” refers to an alkyl group (e.g., a C₁-C₅ alkyl group), as defined above, wherein one of the alkyl group's hydrogen atoms has been replaced with a —COOH group. Representative examples of an alkylcarboxy group include, but are not limited to, —CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH(COOH)CH₃, —CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH(COOH)CH₂CH₃, —CH(COOH)CH₂CH₃ and —C(CH₃)₂CH₂COOH.

The term “cycloalkyl” as employed herein includes saturated and partially unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon groups wherein the cycloalkyl group additionally is optionally substituted. For example a cycloalkyl can be saturated and partially unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon groups having 3 to 12 carbons, 3 to 8 carbons, and or 3 to 6 carbons, Some cycloalkyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic ring system having 1 or more heteroatoms. For example, a heteroaryl includes an aromatic 5-8 membered monocyclic, 8-12 membered bicyclic, or 11-14 membered tricyclic ring system having 1-3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from 0, N, or S-3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1-3, 1-6, or 1-9 heteroatoms of 0, N, or S if monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively), wherein 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or more atoms of each ring are substituted by a substituent. Examples of heteroaryl groups include pyridyl, furyl or furanyl, imidazolyl, benzimidazolyl, pyrimidinyl, thiophenyl or thienyl, quinolinyl, indolyl, thiazolyl, and the like.

The term “heteroarylalkyl” or the term “heteroaralkyl” refers to an alkyl substituted with a heteroaryl. The term “heteroarylalkoxy” refers to an alkoxy substituted with heteroaryl.

The term “heteroarylakl” or the term “heteroaralkyl” refers to an alkyl substituted with a heteroaryl. The term “heteroarylalkoxy” refers to an alkoxy substituted with heteroaryl.

The term “heterocyclyl” refers to a nonaromatic 5-8 membered monocyclic, 8-12 membered bicyclic, or 11-14 membered tricyclic ring system having 1-3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from 0, N, or S (e.g., carbon atoms and 1-3, 1-6, or 1-9 heteroatoms of O, N, or S if monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic, respectively), wherein 0, 1, 2 or 3 atoms of each ring are substituted by a substituent. Examples of heterocyclyl groups include piperazinyl, pyrrolidinyl, dioxanyl, morpholinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, and the like.

The term “substituent” refers to a group replacing a second atom or group such as a hydrogen atom on any molecule, compound or moiety. Suitable substituents include, without limitation, halo, hydroxy, mercapto, oxo, nitro, haloalkyl, alkyl, alkaryl, aryl, aralkyl, alkoxy, thioalkoxy, aryloxy, amino, alkoxycarbonyl, amido, carboxy, alkanesulfonyl, alkylcarbonyl, and cyano groups.

In some embodiments, the compounds of this invention contain one or more asymmetric centers and thus occur as racemates and racemic mixtures, single enantiomers, individual diastereomers and diastereomeric mixtures. All such isomeric forms of these compounds are included unless expressly provided otherwise. In some embodiments, the compounds of this invention are also represented in multiple tautomeric forms, in such instances, the invention includes all tautomeric forms of the compounds described herein (e.g., if alkylation of a ring system results in alkylation at multiple sites, the invention includes all such reaction products). All such isomeric forms of such compounds are included unless expressly provided otherwise. All crystal forms of the compounds described herein are included unless expressly provided otherwise.

As used herein, the terms “increase” and “decrease” mean, respectively, to cause a statistically significantly (i.e., p<0.1) increase or decrease of at least 5%.

As used herein, the recitation of a numerical range for a variable is intended to convey that the variable is equal to any of the values within that range. Thus, for a variable which is inherently discrete, the variable is equal to any integer value within the numerical range, including the end-points of the range. Similarly, for a variable which is inherently continuous, the variable is equal to any real value within the numerical range, including the end-points of the range. As an example, and without limitation, a variable which is described as having values between 0 and 2 takes the values 0, 1 or 2 if the variable is inherently discrete, and takes the values 0.0, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, or any other real values≥0 and ≤2 if the variable is inherently continuous.

As used herein, unless specifically indicated otherwise, the word “or” is used in the inclusive sense of “and/or” and not the exclusive sense of “either/or.”

The term “on average” represents the mean value derived from performing at least three independent replicates for each data point.

The term “biological activity” encompasses structural and functional properties of a macrocycle. Biological activity is, e.g., structural stability, α-helicity, affinity for a target, resistance to proteolytic degradation, cell penetrability, intracellular stability, in vivo stability, or any combination thereof.

The term “binding affinity” refers to the strength of a binding interaction, for example between a peptidomimetic macrocycle and a target. Binding affinity can be expressed, for example, as an equilibrium dissociation constant (“K_(D)”), which is expressed in units which are a measure of concentration (e.g., M, mM, μM, nM, etc.). Numerically, binding affinity and K_(D) values vary inversely, such that a lower binding affinity corresponds to a higher K_(D) value, while a higher binding affinity corresponds to a lower K_(D) value. Where high binding affinity is desirable, “improved” binding affinity refers to higher binding affinity i.e., lower K_(D) values.

The term “in vitro efficacy” refers to the extent to which a test compound, such as a peptidomimetic macrocycle, produces a beneficial result in an in vitro test system or assay. In vitro efficacy can be measured, for example, as an “IC₅₀” or “EC₅₀” value, which represents the concentration of the test compound which produces 50% of the maximal effect in the test system.

The term “ratio of in vitro efficacies” or “in vitro efficacy ratio” refers to the ratio of IC₅₀ or EC₅₀ values from a first assay (the numerator) versus a second assay (the denominator). Consequently, an improved in vitro efficacy ratio for Assay 1 versus Assay 2 refers to a lower value for the ratio expressed as IC₅₀(Assay 1)/IC₅₀(Assay 2) or alternatively as EC₅₀(Assay 1)/EC₅₀(Assay 2). This concept can also be characterized as “improved selectivity” in Assay 1 versus Assay 2, which can be due either to a decrease in the IC₅₀ or EC₅₀ value for Target 1 or an increase in the value for the IC₅₀ or EC₅₀ value for Target 2.

The details of one or more particular embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

Peptidomimetic Macrocycles of the Invention

In general, peptidomimetic macrocycles are prepared that target or interact with proteins that a virus needs for infection or replication within a host cell. Such viruses may be, for example, influenza viruses belonging to Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses. This family also includes Thogoto viruses and Dhoriviruses. There are several types and subtypes of influenza viruses known, which infect humans and other species. Influenza type A viruses infect people, birds, pigs, horses, seals and other animals, but wild birds are the natural hosts for these viruses. Influenza type A viruses are divided into subtypes and named on the basis of two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). For example, an “H₇N₂ virus” designates an influenza A subtype that has an HA 7 protein and an NA 2 protein. Similarly an “H₅N₁” virus has an HA 5 protein and an NA 1 protein. There are 16 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes. Many different combinations of HA and NA proteins are possible. Only some influenza A subtypes (i.e., H₁H₁, H₁N₂, and H₃N₂) are currently in general circulation among people. Other subtypes are found most commonly in other animal species. For example, H₇N₇ and H₃N₈ viruses cause illness in horses, and H₃N₈ also has recently been shown to cause illness in dogs.

Antiviral agents according to the invention can be used to protect high-risk groups (hospital units, institutes caring for elderly, immuno-suppressed individuals), and on a case by case basis. A potential use for antiviral agents is to limit the spread and severity of the future pandemics whether caused by avian H₅N₁ or other strains of influenza virus. Avian influenza A viruses of the subtypes H₅ and H₇, including H₅N₁, H₇N₇, and H₇N₃ viruses, have been associated with high pathogenicity, and human infection with these viruses have ranged from mild (H₇N₃, H₇N₇) to severe and fatal disease (H₇N₇, H₅N₁). Human illness due to infection with low pathogenicity viruses has been documented, including very mild symptoms (e.g., conjunctivitis) to influenza-like illness. Examples of low pathogenicity viruses that have infected humans include H₇N₇, H₉N₂, and H₇N₂.

Influenza B viruses are usually found in humans but can also infect seals Unlike influenza A viruses, these viruses are not classified according to subtype. Influenza B viruses can cause morbidity and mortality among humans, but in general are associated with less severe epidemics than influenza A viruses. Although influenza type B viruses can cause human epidemics, they have not caused pandemics.

Influenza type C viruses cause mild illness in humans and do not cause epidemics or pandemics. These viruses can also infect dogs and pigs. These viruses are not classified according to subtype.

Influenza viruses differ from each other in respect to cell surface receptor specificity and cell tropism, however they use common entry pathways. Charting these pathways and identification of host cell proteins involved in virus influenza transmission, entry, replication, biosynthesis, assembly, or exit allows the development of general agents against existing and emerging strains of influenza. The agents may also prove useful against unrelated viruses that use similar pathways. For example, the agents may protect airway epithelial cells against a number of different viruses in addition to influenza viruses.

The targeted virus can be an adenovirus. Adenoviruses most commonly cause respiratory illness; symptoms of respiratory illness caused by adenovirus infection range from the common cold syndrome to pneumonia, croup, and bronchitis. Patients with compromised immune systems are especially susceptible to severe complications of adenovirus infection. Acute respiratory disease (ARD), first recognized among military recruits during World War II, can be caused by adenovirus infections during conditions of crowding and stress. Adenoviruses are medium-sized (90-100 nm), nonenveloped icosohedral viruses containing double-stranded DNA. There are 49 immunologically distinct types (6 subgenera: A through F) that can cause human infections. Adenoviruses are unusually stable to chemical or physical agents and adverse pH conditions, allowing for prolonged survival outside of the body. Some adenoviruses, such as AD2 and Ad5 (species C) use clathrin mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis for infectious entry. Other adenoviruses, such as Ad3 (species B) use dynamin dependent endocytosis and macropinocytosis for infectious entry.

The targeted virus can be a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children under 1 year of age. Illness begins most frequently with fever, runny nose, cough, and sometimes wheezing. During their first RSV infection, between 25% and 40% of infants and young children have signs or symptoms of bronchiolitis or pneumonia, and 0.5% to 2% require hospitalization. Most children recover from illness in 8 to 15 days. The majority of children hospitalized for RSV infection are under 6 months of age. RSV also causes repeated infections throughout life, usually associated with moderate-to-severe cold-like symptoms; however, severe lower respiratory tract disease may occur at any age, especially among the elderly or among those with compromised cardiac, pulmonary, or immune systems. RSV is a negative-sense, enveloped RNA virus. The virion is variable in shape and size (average diameter of between 120 and 300 nm), is unstable in the environment (surviving only a few hours on environmental surfaces), and is readily inactivated with soap and water and disinfectants.

The targeted virus can be a human parainfluenza virus (HPIV). HPIVs are second to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) as a common cause of lower respiratory tract disease in young children Similar to RSV, HPIVs can cause repeated infections throughout life, usually manifested by an upper respiratory tract illness (e.g., a cold and/or sore throat). HPIVs can also cause serious lower respiratory tract disease with repeat infection (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis), especially among the elderly, and among patients with compromised immune systems. Each of the four HPIVs has different clinical and epidemiologic features. The most distinctive clinical feature of HPIV-1 and HPIV-2 is croup (i.e., laryngotracheobronchitis); HPIV-1 is the leading cause of croup in children, whereas HPIV-2 is less frequently detected. Both HPIV-1 and -2 can cause other upper and lower respiratory tract illnesses. HPIV-3 is more often associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia. HPIV-4 is infrequently detected, possibly because it is less likely to cause severe disease. The incubation period for HPIVs is generally from 1 to 7 days. HPIVs are negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that possess fusion and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoprotein “spikes” on their surface. There are four serotypes types of HPIV (1 through 4) and two subtypes (4a and 4b). The virion varies in size (average diameter between 150 and 300 nm) and shape, is unstable in the environment (surviving a few hours on environmental surfaces), and is readily inactivated with soap and water.

The targeted virus can be a coronavirus. Coronavirus is a genus of animal virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae. Coronaviruses are enveloped viruses with a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and a helical symmetry. The genomic size of coronaviruses ranges from approximately 16 to 31 kilobases, extraordinarily large for an RNA virus. The name “coronavirus” is derived from the Latin corona, meaning crown, as the virus envelope appears under electron microscopy to be crowned by a characteristic ring of small bulbous structures. This morphology is actually formed by the viral spike peplomers, which are proteins that populate the surface of the virus and determine host tropism. Coronaviruses are grouped in the order Nidovirales, named for the Latin nidus, meaning nest, as all viruses in this order produce a 3′ co-terminal nested set of subgenomic mRNA's during infection. Proteins that contribute to the overall structure of all coronaviruses are the spike, envelope, membrane and nucleocapsid. In the specific case of SARS a defined receptor-binding domain on S mediates the attachment of the virus to its cellular receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.

The targeted virus can be a rhinovirus. Rhinovirus (from the Greek rhin-, which means “nose”) is a genus of the Picornaviridae family of viruses Rhinoviruses are the most common viral infective agents in humans, and a causative agent of the common cold. There are over 105 serologic virus types that cause cold symptoms, and rhinoviruses are responsible for approximately 50% of all cases. Rhinoviruses have single-stranded positive sense RNA genomes of between 7.2 and 8.5 kb in length. At the 5′ end of the genome is a virus-encoded protein, and like mammalian mRNA, there is a 3′ poly-A tail. Structural proteins are encoded in the 5′ region of the genome and nonstructural at the end. This is the same for all picornaviruses. The viral particles themselves are not enveloped and are icosahedral in structure.

Any secondary structure of a viral protein (or of a host cell protein involved in viral infectivity) can form the basis of the methods. For example, a viral protein comprising a secondary structure which is a helix may be used to design peptidomimetic macrocycles based on said helix.

The peptidomimetic macrocycle can be designed based on the PB1 or PB2 sequence of an influenza virus. The PB1 sequence is highly conserved across all known strains of influenza A virus, which may result in less drug resistance should than that observed with the current standard of care. An alignment of the first 25 N-terminal amino acids of PB1 from the NCBI data bank's 2.485 influenza A virus strains (Ghanem. 2007) demonstrates the remarkable sequence conservation in the PA interaction domain of PB1. Therefore, antiviral therapies based on the PB1 sequence may block most, if not all, influenza A virus strains. Additionally, sequence modification of a peptidomimetic macrocycle based on these few variations in PB1 may enable an antiviral cocktail of PB1 inhibitors to eliminate resistance due to escape mutants. The sequence of the first 15 N-terminal amino acids of PB1 is: MDVNPTLLFLKVPAQ (SEQ ID NO: 6). In some embodiments, a peptide of the disclosure is, or is not, Ac-NleDVN$TLL$LKVAibAQ-NH₂ (“Aileron peptide 1”) (SEQ ID NO: 8). Exemplary sequences suitable for macrocyclization and macrocyclic peptides for use is given below in Table 1:

TABLE 1 SEQ ID NO: Table 1a 6 Ribarivin M D V N P T L L F L K V P A Q 8 AP1 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L K V Aib A Q Table 1b - Exemplary peptidomimetic macrocycles SP# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 1 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L K A Aib A Q —NH₂ 10 2 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L K V Aib A A —NH₂ 11 3 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L K V P Aib Q —NH₂ 12 4 Ac— F D V N $ T L L $ L K V Aib A Q —NH₂ 13 5 5-FAM Ba Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Aib A Q —NH₂ 14 6 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Aib A Q —NH₂ 15 7 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Aib A Q A A —NH₂ 16 8 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V A A Q A A —NH₂ 17 9 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V A A A A A —NH₂ 18 10 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V S A Q A A —NH₂ 19 11 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q A Q A A —NH₂ 20 12 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V E A Q A A —NH₂ 21 13 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V S A A A A —NH₂ 22 14 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q A A A A —NH₂ 23 15 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V E A A A A —NH₂ 24 16 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Aib A Q A a —NH₂ 25 17 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Aib A Q A a —OH 26 18 Ac— Nle D V N $r8 T L L F L A $ A A Q —NH₂ 27 19 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q Aib Q A A —NH₂ 28 20 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q A Q Aib A —NH₂ 29 21 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q Aib A A A —NH₂ 30 22 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q A A Aib A —NH₂ 31 23 Ac— Nle D V N $ T L L $ L A V Q A Aib A A —NH₂ 32 24 Ac— Nle D V N $r8 T L L F L A $ A A Q A A —NH₂ 33 25 Ac— Nle D V N $r8 T L L F L A $ A A A A A —NH₂ 34 26 Ac— Nle D V N $r8 T L L F L A $ Q A Q A A —NH₂ 35 27 Ac— Nle D V N $r8 T L L F L A $ Q A A A A —NH₂ AP1—Aileron peptide 1

In the sequences shown above and elsewhere, the following abbreviations are used: “Nle” represents norleucine, “Aib” represents 2-aminoisobutyric acid, “Ac” represents acetyl, and “Pr” represents propionyl. Amino acids represented as “$” are α-Me S5-pentenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon crosslinker comprising one double bond. Amino acids represented as “$r5” are α-Me R5-pentenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon comprising one double bond. Amino acids represented as “$s8” are α-Me S8-octenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon crosslinker comprising one double bond. Amino acids represented as “$r8” are α-Me R8-octenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon crosslinker comprising one double bond. “Ahx” represents an aminocyclohexyl linker “%” are α-Me S5-pentenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon crosslinker comprising no double bonds (fully saturated alkylene crosslinker). “% r8” are α-Me R8-octenyl-alanine olefin amino acids connected by an all-carbon crosslinker comprising no double bonds (fully saturated alkylene crosslinker). Amino acids represented as “$/” are α-Me S5-pentenyl-alanine olefin amino acids that are not connected by any crosslinker. Amino acids represented as “$/r5” are α-Me R5-pentenyl-alanine olefin amino acids that are not connected by any crosslinker. Amino acids represented as “$/s8” are α-Me S8-octenyl-alanine olefin amino acids that are not connected by any crosslinker. Amino acids represented as “$/r8” are α-Me R8-octenyl-alanine olefin amino acids that are not connected by any crosslinker. Amino acids represented as “Amw” are α-Me tryptophan amino acids. Amino acids represented as “Aml” are α-Me leucine amino acids. Amino acids represented as “Amf” are α-Me phenylalanine amino acids. Amino acids represented as “2ff” are 2-fluoro-phenylalanine amino acids. Amino acids represented as “3ff” are 3-fluoro-phenylalanine amino acids. Amino acids represented as “St” are amino acids comprising two pentenyl-alanine olefin side chains, each of which is crosslinked to another amino acid as indicated. Amino acids represented as “St//” are amino acids comprising two pentenyl-alanine olefin side chains that are not crosslinked. Amino acids represented as “% St” are amino acids comprising two pentenyl-alanine olefin side chains, each of which is crosslinked to another amino acid as indicated via fully saturated hydrocarbon crosslinks. Amino acids represented as “Ba” are β-alanine. The lower-case character “e” or “z” within the designation of a crosslinked amino acid (e.g., “$er8” or “$zr8”) represents the configuration of the double bond (E or Z, respectively). In other contexts, lower-case letters such as “a” or “f” represent D amino acids (e.g., D-alanine, or D-phenylalanine, respectively). Amino acids designated as lower case “a” represent D-Alanine. Amino acids designated as “NmW” represent N-methyltryptophan. Amino acids designated as “NmY” represent N-methyltyrosine. Amino acids designated as “NmA” represent N-methylalanine. “Kbio” represents a biotin group attached to the side chain amino group of a lysine residue. Amino acids designated as “Sar” represent sarcosine. Amino acids designated as “Cha” represent cyclohexyl alanine. Amino acids designated as “Cpg” represent cyclopentyl glycine. Amino acids designated as “Chg” represent cyclohexyl glycine. Amino acids designated as “Cba” represent cyclobutyl alanine. Amino acids designated as “F4I” represent 4-iodo phenylalanine. “7L” represents N15 isotopic leucine. Amino acids designated as “F3Cl” represent 3-chloro phenylalanine. Amino acids designated as “F4cooh” represent 4-carboxy phenylalanine. Amino acids designated as “F34F2” represent 3,4-difluoro phenylalanine. Amino acids designated as “6clW” represent 6-chloro tryptophan. Amino acids designated as “$rda6” represent α-Me R6-hexynyl-alanine alkynyl amino acids, crosslinked via a dialkyne bond to a second alkynyl amino acid. Amino acids designated as “$da5” represent α-Me S5-pentynyl-alanine alkynyl amino acids, wherein the alkyne forms one half of a dialkyne bond with a second alkynyl amino acid. Amino acids designated as “$ra9” represent α-Me R9-nonynyl-alanine alkynyl amino acids, crosslinked via an alkyne metathesis reaction with a second alkynyl amino acid. Amino acids designated as “$a6” represent α-Me S6-hexynyl-alanine alkynyl amino acids, crosslinked via an alkyne metathesis reaction with a second alkynyl amino acid. The designation “iso1” or “iso2” indicates that the peptidomimetic macrocycle is a single isomer.

Amino acids designated as “Cit” represent citrulline. Amino acids designated as “Cou4”, “Cou6”, “Cou7” and “Cou8”, respectively, represent the following structures:

In some embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle is obtained in more than one isomer, for example due to the configuration of a double bond within the structure of the crosslinker (E vs Z). Such isomers can or cannot be separable by conventional chromatographic methods. In some embodiments, one isomer has improved biological properties relative to the other isomer. In one embodiment, an E crosslinker olefin isomer of a peptidomimetic macrocycle has better solubility, better target affinity, better in vivo or in vitro efficacy, higher helicity, or improved cell permeability relative to its Z counterpart. In another embodiment, a Z crosslinker olefin isomer of a peptidomimetic macrocycle has better solubility, better target affinity, better in vivo or in vitro efficacy, higher helicity, or improved cell permeability relative to its E counterpart.

In some embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle has the Formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   each A, C, D, and E is independently a natural or non-natural         amino acid;     -   B is a natural or non-natural amino acid, amino acid analog,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   -   R₁ and R₂ are independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-;     -   R₃ is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or         heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each L is independently a macrocycle-forming linker;     -   each L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene,         heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene,         heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being optionally         substituted with R₅;     -   each R₄ is alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene,         cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene;     -   each K is O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃;     -   n is an integer from 1-5;     -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆,         —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a         therapeutic agent;     -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a         radioisotope or a therapeutic agent;     -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with a D residue;     -   each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with an E residue;     -   each v and w is independently integers from 1-1000, for example         1-500, 1-200, 1-100, 1-50, 1-40, 1-25, 1-20, 1 to 15, or 1 to         10; and     -   each u, x, y and z is independently integers from 0-10.

In some embodiments, L is a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula -L₁-L₂-. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄-]_(n), each being optionally substituted with R₅; each R₄ is alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each K is O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃; and n is an integer from 1-5.

In one example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is at least 2. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. Each occurrence of A, B, C, D or E in a macrocycle or macrocycle precursor is independently selected. For example, a sequence represented by the formula [A]_(x), when x is 3, encompasses embodiments where the amino acids are not identical, e.g., Gln-Asp-Ala as well as embodiments where the amino acids are identical, e.g., Gln-Gln-Gln. This applies for any value of x, y, or z in the indicated ranges. Similarly, when u is greater than 1, each compound may encompass peptidomimetic macrocycles which are the same or different. For example, a compound may comprise peptidomimetic macrocycles comprising different linker lengths or chemical compositions.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a secondary structure which is a helix and R₈ is —H, allowing intrahelical hydrogen bonding. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid. In other embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is

In other embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker L as measured from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to stabilize a desired secondary peptide structure, such as a helix formed by residues of the peptidomimetic macrocycle including, but not necessarily limited to, those between the first Cα to a second Cα.

In some embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) has Formula (Ic):

wherein: each A, C, D, and E is independently a natural or non-natural amino acid; each B is independently a natural or non-natural amino acid, amino acid analog,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-]; each L is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each L′ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene, each being optionally substituted with R₅, or a bond, or together with R₁ and the atom to which both R₁ and L′ are bound forms a ring; each L″ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene, each being optionally substituted with R₅, or a bond, or together with R₂ and the atom to which both R₂ and L″ are bound forms a ring; each R₁ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-, or together with L′ and the atom to which both R₁ and L′ are bound forms a ring; each R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-, or together with L″ and the atom to which both R₂ and L″ are bound forms a ring; R₃ is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K-R4-]_(n), each being optionally substituted with R₅; each R₄ is alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each K is O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃; n is an integer from 1-5; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v and w is independently an integer from 1-1000, for example 1-500, 1-200, 1-100, 1-50, 1-40, 1-25, 1-20, 1-15, or 1-10; and each u, x, y and z is independently an integer from 0-10.

In some embodiments, L is a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula -L₁-L₂-. In some embodiments, L₁ and L₂ are independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being optionally substituted with R₅; each R₄ is alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each K is O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃; and n is an integer from 1-5.

In one example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is at least 2. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. Each occurrence of A, B, C, D or E in a macrocycle or macrocycle precursor is independently selected. For example, a sequence represented by the formula [A]_(x), when x is 3, encompasses embodiments where the amino acids are not identical, e.g., Gln-Asp-Ala as well as embodiments where the amino acids are identical, e.g., Gln-Gln-Gln. This applies for any value of x, y, or z in the indicated ranges. Similarly, when u is greater than 1, each compound may encompass peptidomimetic macrocycles which are the same or different. For example, a compound may comprise peptidomimetic macrocycles comprising different linker lengths or chemical compositions.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a secondary structure which is a helix and R₈ is —H, allowing intrahelical hydrogen bonding. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid. In other embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is

In other embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker L as measured from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to stabilize a desired secondary peptide structure, such as a helix formed by residues of the peptidomimetic macrocycle including, but not necessarily limited to, those between the first Cα to a second Cα.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) has the Formula:

wherein each A, C, D, and E is independently an amino acid;

-   -   each B is independently an amino acid,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   -   L′ is a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula -L₁′-L₂′-;     -   and wherein A, B, C, D, and E, taken together with the         crosslinked amino acids connected by the macrocycle-forming         linkers L and L′, form the amino acid sequence of the         peptidomimetic macrocycle;     -   R₁′ and R₂′ are independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-;     -   L₁′ and L₂′ and L₃ are independently alkylene, alkenylene,         alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,         arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being         optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃;     -   R₇′ is —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,         heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or         heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic         structure with a D residue;     -   R₈′ is —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,         heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or         heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic         structure with an E residue;     -   v′ and w′ are independently integers from 1-1000, for example         1-500, 1-200, 1-100, 1-50, 1-40, 1-25, 1-20, 1 to 15, or 1 to         10;     -   x′, y′ and z′ are independently integers from 0-10; and     -   n is an integer from 1-5. In some embodiments, the sum of         x′+y′+z′ is 2, 3 or 6, for example 3 or 6.

In one embodiment, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) is Formula (Ia):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, Xaa₁₂, and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, Xaa₁₂, are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-X₉-Lue₁₀-Lys₁₁/Ala₁₁-Val₁₂/Ala₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₉ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ia) is Formula (Ia-1):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ is independently an amino acid.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ia) is Formula (Ia-2):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ and Xaa₁₅ is independently an amino acid.

In one embodiment, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) is Formula (Ib):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁ and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, and Xaa₁₁ are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-Phe₉-Leu₁₀-Lys₁₁/Ala₁₁-X₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₁₂ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 2).

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ib) is Formula (Ib-1):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ is independently an amino acid.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (Ib) is Formula (Ib-2):

or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein each Xaa₁₄ and Xaa₁₅ is independently an amino acid.

In one embodiment, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) is:

wherein each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-.

In related embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a structure of Formula (I) which is:

In other embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (I) is a compound of any of the formulas shown below:

wherein “AA” represents any natural or non-natural amino acid side chain and “

” is [D]_(v), [E]_(w) as defined above, and n is an integer between 0 and 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500. In some embodiments, the substituent “n” shown in the preceding paragraph is 0. In other embodiments, the substituent “n” shown in the preceding paragraph is less than 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, or 5.

Exemplary embodiments of the macrocycle-forming linker L are shown below.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycles have the Formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   each A, C, D, and E is independently a natural or non-natural         amino acid;     -   each B is independently a natural or non-natural amino acid,         amino acid analog,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   -   each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-;     -   each R₃ is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted         with R₅;     -   each L is independently macrocycle-forming linker of the formula

-   -   each L₁, L₂ and L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene,         alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,         arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being         optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each R₄ is alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene,         cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene;     -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃;     -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆,         —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a         therapeutic agent;     -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a         radioisotope or a therapeutic agent;     -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with a D residue;     -   each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of         a cyclic structure with an E residue;     -   each v and w is independently an integer from 1-1000;     -   each u, x, y and z is independently integers from 0-10; and     -   n is an integer from 1-5.

In one example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is at least 2. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. Each occurrence of A, B, C, D or E in a macrocycle or macrocycle precursor is independently selected. For example, a sequence represented by the formula [A]_(x), when x is 3, encompasses embodiments where the amino acids are not identical, e.g., Gln-Asp-Ala as well as embodiments where the amino acids are identical, e.g., Gln-Gln-Gln. This applies for any value of x, y, or z in the indicated ranges.

In some embodiments, each of the first two amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first three amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first four amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, one or more or each of the amino acid that is i+1, i+2, i+3, i+4, i+5, and/or i+6 with respect to Xaa₁₃ represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.

In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, one or more or each of the amino acid that is i+1, i+2, i+3, i+4, i+5, and/or i+6 with respect to Xaa₁₃ represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.

In some embodiments, w is between 1 and 1000. For example, the first amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 2 and 1000. For example, the second amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 3 and 1000. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 4 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 5 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 6 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 7 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 8 and 1000.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a secondary structure which is a helix and R₈ is —H, allowing intrahelical hydrogen bonding. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid. In other embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is

In other embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker L as measured from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to stabilize a desired secondary peptide structure, such as a helix formed by residues of the peptidomimetic macrocycle including, but not necessarily limited to, those between the first Cα to a second Cα.

In some embodiments, L is a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula

In some embodiments, L is a macrocycle-forming linker of the formula

or a tautomer thereof.

Exemplary embodiments of the macrocycle-forming linker L are shown below.

Amino acids which are used in the formation of triazole crosslinkers are represented according to the legend indicated below. Stereochemistry at the α position of each amino acid is S unless otherwise indicated. For azide amino acids, the number of carbon atoms indicated refers to the number of methylene units between the α-carbon and the terminal azide. For alkyne amino acids, the number of carbon atoms indicated is the number of methylene units between the α position and the triazole moiety plus the two carbon atoms within the triazole group derived from the alkyne.

$5a5 α-Me alkyne 1,5 triazole (5 carbon)

$5n3 α-Me azide 1,5 triazole (3 carbon)

$4rn6 α-Me R-azide 1,4 triazole (6 carbon)

$4a5 α-Me alkyne 1,4 triazole (5 carbon)

In other embodiments, the invention provides peptidomimetic macrocycles of Formula (III):

wherein:

-   -   each A, C, D, and E is independently a natural or non-natural         amino acid;     -   each B is independently a natural or non-natural amino acid,         amino acid analog,

[—NH-L₄-CO—], [—NH-L₄-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₄-];

-   -   each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-;     -   each R₃ is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, unsubstituted or         substituted with R₅;     -   each L₁, L₂, L₃ and L₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene,         alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,         arylene, heteroarylene or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being         unsubstituted or substituted with R₅;     -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃;     -   each R₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene,         heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or         heteroarylene;     -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆,         —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a         therapeutic agent;     -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a         radioisotope or a therapeutic agent;     -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, unsubstituted or substituted with R₅, or         part of a cyclic structure with a D residue;     -   each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, unsubstituted or substituted with R₅, or         part of a cyclic structure with an E residue;     -   each v and w is independently an integer from 1-1000;     -   each u, x, y and z is independently an integer from 0-10; and     -   n is an integer from 1-5.

In one example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is at least 2. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. Each occurrence of A, B, C, D or E in a macrocycle or macrocycle precursor is independently selected. For example, a sequence represented by the formula [A]_(x), when x is 3, encompasses embodiments where the amino acids are not identical, e.g., Gln-Asp-Ala as well as embodiments where the amino acids are identical, e.g., Gln-Gln-Gln. This applies for any value of x, y, or z in the indicated ranges.

In some embodiments, each of the first two amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first three amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first four amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.

In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain.

In some embodiments, w is between 1 and 1000. For example, the first amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 2 and 1000. For example, the second amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 3 and 1000. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 4 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 5 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 6 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 7 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 8 and 1000.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a secondary structure which is a helix and R₈ is —H, allowing intrahelical hydrogen bonding. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid. In other embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is

In other embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker [-L₁-S-L₂-S-L₃-] as measured from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to stabilize a desired secondary peptide structure, such as a helix (including, but not limited to a 3₁₀ helix or an α-helix) formed by residues of the peptidomimetic macrocycle including, but not necessarily limited to, those between the first Cα to a second Cα.

Macrocycles or macrocycle precursors are synthesized, for example, by solution phase or solid-phase methods, and can contain both naturally-occurring and non-naturally-occurring amino acids. See, for example, Hunt, “The Non-Protein Amino Acids” in Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Amino Acids, edited by G. C. Barrett, Chapman and Hall, 1985. In some embodiments, the thiol moieties are the side chains of the amino acid residues L-cysteine, D-cysteine, α-methyl-L-cysteine, α-methyl-D-cysteine, L-homocysteine, D-homocysteine, α-methyl-L-homocysteine or α-methyl-D-homocysteine. A bis-alkylating reagent is of the general formula X-L₂-Y wherein L₂ is a linker moiety and X and Y are leaving groups that are displaced by —SH moieties to form bonds with L₂. In some embodiments, X and Y are halogens such as I, Br, or Cl.

In other embodiments, D and/or E in the compound of Formula I, II or III are further modified in order to facilitate cellular uptake. In some embodiments, lipidating or PEGylating a peptidomimetic macrocycle facilitates cellular uptake, increases bioavailability, increases blood circulation, alters pharmacokinetics, decreases immunogenicity and/or decreases the needed frequency of administration.

In other embodiments, at least one of [D] and [E] in the compound of Formula I, II or III represents a moiety comprising an additional macrocycle-forming linker such that the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises at least two macrocycle-forming linkers. In a specific embodiment, a peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises two macrocycle-forming linkers.

In the peptidomimetic macrocycles, any of the macrocycle-forming linkers described herein may be used in any combination with any of the sequences shown in Tables 1-4 and also with any of the R-substituents indicated herein.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises at least one helical motif, such as a 3₁₀ or an α-helix motif. For example, A, B and/or C in the compound of Formula I, II or III include one or more helices. As a general matter, helices include between 3 and 4 amino acid residues per turn. In some embodiments, the helix of the peptidomimetic macrocycle includes 1 to 5 turns and, therefore, 3 to 20 amino acid residues. In specific embodiments, the helix includes 1 turn, 2 turns, 3 turns, 4 turns, or 5 turns. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker stabilizes a helix motif included within the peptidomimetic macrocycle. Thus, in some embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker L from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to increase the stability of a helix. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker spans from 1 turn to 5 turns of the helix. In some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 1 turn, 2 turns, 3 turns, 4 turns, or 5 turns of the helix. In some embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker is approximately 5 Å to 9 Å per turn of the helix, or approximately 6 Å to 8 Å per turn of the helix. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 1 turn of a helix, the length is equal to approximately 5 carbon-carbon bonds to 13 carbon-carbon bonds, approximately 7 carbon-carbon bonds to 11 carbon-carbon bonds, or approximately 9 carbon-carbon bonds. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 2 turns of a helix, the length is equal to approximately 8 carbon-carbon bonds to 16 carbon-carbon bonds, approximately 10 carbon-carbon bonds to 14 carbon-carbon bonds, or approximately 12 carbon-carbon bonds. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 3 turns of a helix, the length is equal to approximately 14 carbon-carbon bonds to 22 carbon-carbon bonds, approximately 16 carbon-carbon bonds to 20 carbon-carbon bonds, or approximately 18 carbon-carbon bonds. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 4 turns of a helix, the length is equal to approximately 20 carbon-carbon bonds to 28 carbon-carbon bonds, approximately 22 carbon-carbon bonds to 26 carbon-carbon bonds, or approximately 24 carbon-carbon bonds. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 5 turns of a helix, the length is equal to approximately 26 carbon-carbon bonds to 34 carbon-carbon bonds, approximately 28 carbon-carbon bonds to 32 carbon-carbon bonds, or approximately 30 carbon-carbon bonds. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 1 turn of a helix, the linkage contains approximately 4 atoms to 12 atoms, approximately 6 atoms to 10 atoms, or approximately 8 atoms. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 2 turns of the helix, the linkage contains approximately 7 atoms to 15 atoms, approximately 9 atoms to 13 atoms, or approximately 11 atoms. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 3 turns of the helix, the linkage contains approximately 13 atoms to 21 atoms, approximately 15 atoms to 19 atoms, or approximately 17 atoms. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 4 turns of the helix, the linkage contains approximately 19 atoms to 27 atoms, approximately 21 atoms to 25 atoms, or approximately 23 atoms. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 5 turns of the helix, the linkage contains approximately 25 atoms to 33 atoms, approximately 27 atoms to 31 atoms, or approximately 29 atoms. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 1 turn of the helix, the resulting macrocycle forms a ring containing approximately 17 members to 25 members, approximately 19 members to 23 members, or approximately 21 members. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 2 turns of the helix, the resulting macrocycle forms a ring containing approximately 29 members to 37 members, approximately 31 members to 35 members, or approximately 33 members. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 3 turns of the helix, the resulting macrocycle forms a ring containing approximately 44 members to 52 members, approximately 46 members to 50 members, or approximately 48 members. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 4 turns of the helix, the resulting macrocycle forms a ring containing approximately 59 members to 67 members, approximately 61 members to 65 members, or approximately 63 members. Where the macrocycle-forming linker spans approximately 5 turns of the helix, the resulting macrocycle forms a ring containing approximately 74 members to 82 members, approximately 76 members to 80 members, or approximately 78 members.

In other embodiments, the invention provides peptidomimetic macrocycles of Formula (II) or (IIa):

wherein:

-   -   each A, C, D, and E is independently a natural or non-natural         amino acid;     -   each B is independently a natural or non-natural amino acid,         amino acid analog,

[—NH-L₃-CO—], [—NH-L₃-SO₂—], or [—NH-L₃-];

-   -   each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or         heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-, or         part of a cyclic structure with an E residue;     -   each R₃ is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted         with R₅;     -   each L is independently a macrocycle-forming linker of the         formula -L₁-L₂-;     -   each L₁ and L₂ and L₃ is independently alkylene, alkenylene,         alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene,         arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄—]_(n), each being         optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each R₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene,         heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or         heteroarylene;     -   each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂, or CONR₃;     -   each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆,         —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a         therapeutic agent;     -   each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a         radioisotope or a therapeutic agent;     -   each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl,         cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl,         aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅;     -   each v and w is independently integers from 1-1000;     -   u, x, y and z are independently integers from 0-10; and     -   n is an integer from 1-5.

In one example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is at least 1. In other embodiments, x+y+z is at least 2. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. Each occurrence of A, B, C, D or E in a macrocycle or macrocycle precursor is independently selected. For example, a sequence represented by the formula [A]_(x), when x is 3, encompasses embodiments where the amino acids are not identical, e.g., Gln-Asp-Ala as well as embodiments where the amino acids are identical, e.g., Gln-Gln-Gln. This applies for any value of x, y, or z in the indicated ranges.

In some embodiments, each of the first two amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first three amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, each of the first four amino acid represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain. In some embodiments, one or more or each of the amino acid that is i+1, i+2, i+3, i+4, i+5, and/or i+6 with respect to Xaa₁₃ represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.

In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid and/or the second C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprise a hydrophobic side chain. For example, the first C-terminal amino acid, the second C-terminal amino acid, and/or the third C-terminal amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain, for example a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, one or more or each of the amino acid that is i+1, i+2, i+3, i+4, i+5, and/or i+6 with respect to Xaa₁₃ represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.

In some embodiments, w is between 1 and 1000. For example, the first amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 2 and 1000. For example, the second amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 3 and 1000. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. For example, the third amino acid represented by E comprises a small hydrophobic side chain. In some embodiments, w is between 4 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 5 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 6 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 7 and 1000. In some embodiments, w is between 8 and 1000.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises a secondary structure which is a helix and R₈ is —H, allowing intrahelical hydrogen bonding. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid. In other embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is

In other embodiments, the length of the macrocycle-forming linker L as measured from a first Cα to a second Cα is selected to stabilize a desired secondary peptide structure, such as a helix (including a 3₁₀ helix or α-helix) formed by residues of the peptidomimetic macrocycle including, but not necessarily limited to, those between the first Cα to a second Cα.

Exemplary embodiments of the macrocycle-forming linker -L₁-L₂- are shown below.

A peptidomimetic macrocycle described herein can be at least 1% pure, at least 2% pure, at least 3% pure, at least 4% pure, at least 5% pure, at least 6% pure, at least 7% pure, at least 8% pure, at least 9% pure, at least 10% pure, at least 11% pure, at least 12% pure, at least 13% pure, at least 14% pure, at least 15% pure, at least 16% pure, at least 17% pure, at least 18% pure, at least 19% pure, at least 20% pure, at least 21% pure, at least 22% pure, at least 23% pure, at least 24% pure, at least 25% pure, at least 26% pure, at least 27% pure, at least 28% pure, at least 29% pure, at least 30% pure, at least 31% pure, at least 32% pure, at least 33% pure, at least 34% pure, at least 35% pure, at least 36% pure, at least 37% pure, at least 38% pure, at least 39% pure, at least 40% pure, at least 41% pure, at least 42% pure, at least 43% pure, at least 44% pure, at least 45% pure, at least 46% pure, at least 47% pure, at least 48% pure, at least 49% pure, at least 50% pure, at least 51% pure, at least 52% pure, at least 53% pure, at least 54% pure, at least 55% pure, at least 56% pure, at least 57% pure, at least 58% pure, at least 59% pure, at least 60% pure, at least 61% pure, at least 62% pure, at least 63% pure, at least 64% pure, at least 65% pure, at least 66% pure, at least 67% pure, at least 68% pure, at least 69% pure, at least 70% pure, at least 71% pure, at least 72% pure, at least 73% pure, at least 74% pure, at least 75% pure, at least 76% pure, at least 77% pure, at least 78% pure, at least 79% pure, at least 80% pure, at least 81% pure, at least 82% pure, at least 83% pure, at least 84% pure, at least 85% pure, at least 86% pure, at least 87% pure, at least 88% pure, at least 89% pure, at least 90% pure, at least 91% pure, at least 92% pure, at least 93% pure, at least 94% pure, at least 95% pure, at least 96% pure, at least 97% pure, at least 98% pure, at least 99% pure, at least 99.1% pure, at least 99.2% pure, at least 99.3% pure, at least 99.4% pure, at least 99.5% pure, at least 99.6% pure, at least 99.7% pure, at least 99.8% pure, or at least 99.9% pure on a chemical, optical, isomeric, enantiomeric, or diastereomeric basis. Purity can be assessed, for example, by HPLC, MS, LC/MS, melting point, or NMR.

Two or more peptides can share a degree of homology. A pair of peptides can have, for example, up to about 20% pairwise homology, up to about 25% pairwise homology, up to about 30% pairwise homology, up to about 35% pairwise homology, up to about 40% pairwise homology, up to about 45% pairwise homology, up to about 50% pairwise homology, up to about 55% pairwise homology, up to about 60% pairwise homology, up to about 65% pairwise homology, up to about 70% pairwise homology, up to about 75% pairwise homology, up to about 80% pairwise homology, up to about 85% pairwise homology, up to about 90% pairwise homology, up to about 95% pairwise homology, up to about 96% pairwise homology, up to about 97% pairwise homology, up to about 98% pairwise homology, up to about 99% pairwise homology, up to about 99.5% pairwise homology, or up to about 99.9% pairwise homology. A pair of peptides can have, for example, at least about 20% pairwise homology, at least about 25% pairwise homology, at least about 30% pairwise homology, at least about 35% pairwise homology, at least about 40% pairwise homology, at least about 45% pairwise homology, at least about 50% pairwise homology, at least about 55% pairwise homology, at least about 60% pairwise homology, at least about 65% pairwise homology, at least about 70% pairwise homology, at least about 75% pairwise homology, at least about 80% pairwise homology, at least about 85% pairwise homology, at least about 90% pairwise homology, at least about 95% pairwise homology, at least about 96% pairwise homology, at least about 97% pairwise homology, at least about 98% pairwise homology, at least about 99% pairwise homology, at least about 99.5% pairwise homology, at least about 99.9% pairwise homology.

Various methods and software programs can be used to determine the homology between two or more peptides, such as NCBI BLAST, Clustal W, MAFFT, Clustal Omega, AlignMe, Praline, or another suitable method or algorithm.

Preparation of Peptidomimetic Macrocycles

Peptidomimetic macrocycles may be prepared by any of a variety of methods known in the art. For example, any of the residues indicated by “$” or “$r8” in Table 1 may be substituted with a residue capable of forming a crosslinker with a second residue in the same molecule or a precursor of such a residue.

Various methods to effect formation of peptidomimetic macrocycles are known in the art. For example, the preparation of peptidomimetic macrocycles of Formula I is described in Schafmeister et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122:5891-5892 (2000); Schafmeister & Verdin, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122:5891 (2005); Walensky et al., Science 305:1466-1470 (2004); and U.S. Pat. No. 7,192,713; and PCT application WO 2008/121767. The α,α-disubstituted amino acids and amino acid precursors disclosed in the cited references may be employed in synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycle precursor polypeptides. For example, the “S5-olefin amino acid” is (S)-α-(2′-pentenyl) alanine and the “R8 olefin amino acid” is (R)-α-(2′-octenyl) alanine. Following incorporation of such amino acids into precursor polypeptides, the terminal olefins are reacted with a metathesis catalyst, leading to the formation of the peptidomimetic macrocycle.

In other embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycles are of Formula IV or IVa. Methods for the preparation of such macrocycles are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,202,332 and PCT application WO 2008/121767.

In some embodiments, the synthesis of these peptidomimetic macrocycles involves a multi-step process that features the synthesis of a peptidomimetic precursor containing an azide moiety and an alkyne moiety; followed by contacting the peptidomimetic precursor with a macrocyclization catalyst to generate a triazole-linked peptidomimetic macrocycle. Such a process is described, for example, in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/037,041, filed on Feb. 25, 2008. Macrocycles or macrocycle precursors are synthesized, for example, by solution phase or solid-phase methods, and can contain both naturally-occurring and non-naturally-occurring amino acids. See, for example, Hunt, “The Non-Protein Amino Acids” in Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Amino Acids, edited by G. C. Barrett, Chapman and Hall, 1985.

In some embodiments, an azide is linked to the α-carbon of a residue and an alkyne is attached to the α-carbon of another residue. In some embodiments, the azide moieties are azido-analogs of amino acids L-lysine, D-lysine, α-methyl-L-lysine, α-methyl-D-lysine, L-ornithine, D-ornithine, α-methyl-L-ornithine or α-methyl-D-ornithine. In another embodiment, the alkyne moiety is L-propargylglycine. In yet other embodiments, the alkyne moiety is an amino acid selected from the group consisting of L-propargylglycine, D-propargylglycine, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-5-hexynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-5-hexynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-7-octynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-7-octynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-8-nonynoic acid and (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-8-nonynoic acid.

In various embodiments, the following amino acids may be employed in the synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycle:

In various embodiments, the following amino acids may be employed in the synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycle, wherein L′ is an atom (for example, C, O, N, or S); and g is an integer from 1-20, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20:

In some embodiments, the invention provides a method for synthesizing a peptidomimetic macrocycle, the method comprising the steps of contacting a peptidomimetic precursor of Formula V or Formula VI:

with a macrocyclization catalyst; wherein v, w, x, y, z, A, B, C, D, E, R₁, R₂, R₇, R₈, L₁ and L₂ are as defined for Formula (II); R₁₂ is —H when the macrocyclization catalyst is a Cu catalyst and R₁₂ is —H or alkyl when the macrocyclization catalyst is a Ru catalyst, and further wherein said contacting step results in a covalent linkage being formed between the alkyne and azide moiety in Formula III or Formula IV. For example, R₁₂ may be methyl when the macrocyclization catalyst t is a Ru catalyst.

In the peptidomimetic macrocycles, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. In one example, B is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid. For instance, at least one of A, B, C, D or E is 2-aminoisobutyric acid.

For example, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In another example, both R₁ and R₂ are independently alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-. In some embodiments, at least one of R₁ and R₂ is methyl. In other embodiments, R₁ and R₂ are methyl. The macrocyclization catalyst may be a Cu catalyst or a Ru catalyst.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic precursor is purified prior to the contacting step. In other embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle is purified after the contacting step. In still other embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycle is refolded after the contacting step. The method may be performed in solution, or, alternatively, the method may be performed on a solid support.

Also envisioned herein is performing the method in the presence of a target macromolecule that binds to the peptidomimetic precursor or peptidomimetic macrocycle under conditions that favor said binding. In some embodiments, the method is performed in the presence of a target macromolecule that binds preferentially to the peptidomimetic precursor or peptidomimetic macrocycle under conditions that favor said binding. The method may also be applied to synthesize a library of peptidomimetic macrocycles.

In some embodiments, the alkyne moiety of the peptidomimetic precursor of Formula V or Formula VI is a sidechain of an amino acid selected from the group consisting of L-propargylglycine, D-propargylglycine, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-5-hexynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-5-hexynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-7-octynoic acid, (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-7-octynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-8-nonynoic acid, and (R)-2-amino-2-methyl-8-nonynoic acid. In other embodiments, the azide moiety of the peptidomimetic precursor of Formula V or Formula VI is a sidechain of an amino acid selected from the group consisting of ε-azido-L-lysine, ε-azido-D-lysine, ε-azido-α-methyl-L-lysine, ε-azido-α-methyl-D-lysine, δ-azido-α-methyl-L-ornithine, and δ-azido-α-methyl-D-ornithine.

In some embodiments, x+y+z is 2, and A, B and C are independently natural or non-natural amino acids. In other embodiments, x+y+z is 3 or 6, and A, B and C are independently natural or non-natural amino acids.

In some embodiments, the contacting step is performed in a solvent selected from the group consisting of protic solvent, aqueous solvent, organic solvent, and mixtures thereof. For example, the solvent may be chosen from the group consisting of H₂O, THF, THF/H₂O, tBuOH/H₂O, DMF, DIPEA, CH₃CN or CH₂Cl₂, ClCH₂CH₂Cl or a mixture thereof. The solvent may be a solvent which favors helix formation.

Alternative but equivalent protecting groups, leaving groups or reagents are substituted, and certain of the synthetic steps are performed in alternative sequences or orders to produce the desired compounds. Synthetic chemistry transformations and protecting group methodologies (protection and deprotection) useful in synthesizing the compounds described herein include, for example, those such as described in Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers (1989); Greene and Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 2d. Ed., John Wiley and Sons (1991); Fieser and Fieser, Fieser and Fieser's Reagents for Organic Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons (1994); and Paquette, ed., Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons (1995), and subsequent editions thereof.

The peptidomimetic macrocycles disclosed herein are made, for example, by chemical synthesis methods, such as described in Fields et al., Chapter 3 in Synthetic Peptides: A User's Guide, ed. Grant, W. H. Freeman & Co., New York, N.Y., 1992, p. 77. Hence, for example, peptides are synthesized using the automated Merrifield techniques of solid phase synthesis with the amine protected by either tBoc or Fmoc chemistry using side chain protected amino acids on, for example, an automated peptide synthesizer (e.g., Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.), Model 430A, 431, or 433).

One manner of producing the peptidomimetic precursors and peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein uses solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). The C-terminal amino acid is attached to a cross-linked polystyrene resin via an acid labile bond with a linker molecule. This resin is insoluble in the solvents used for synthesis, making it relatively simple and fast to wash away excess reagents and by-products. The N-terminus is protected with the Fmoc group, which is stable in acid, but removable by base. Side chain functional groups are protected as necessary with base stable, acid labile groups.

Longer peptidomimetic precursors are produced, for example, by conjoining individual synthetic peptides using native chemical ligation. Alternatively, the longer synthetic peptides are biosynthesized by well-known recombinant DNA and protein expression techniques. Such techniques are provided in well-known standard manuals with detailed protocols. To construct a gene encoding a peptidomimetic precursor of this invention, the amino acid sequence is reverse translated to obtain a nucleic acid sequence encoding the amino acid sequence, preferably with codons that are optimum for the organism in which the gene is to be expressed. Next, a synthetic gene is made, typically by synthesizing oligonucleotides which encode the peptide and any regulatory elements, if necessary. The synthetic gene is inserted in a suitable cloning vector and transfected into a host cell. The peptide is then expressed under suitable conditions appropriate for the selected expression system and host. The peptide is purified and characterized by standard methods.

The peptidomimetic precursors are made, for example, in a high-throughput, combinatorial fashion using, for example, a high-throughput polychannel combinatorial synthesizer (e.g., Thuramed TETRAS multichannel peptide synthesizer from CreoSalus, Louisville, Ky. or Model Apex 396 multichannel peptide synthesizer from AAPPTEC, Inc., Louisville, Ky.).

The following synthetic schemes are provided solely to illustrate the present invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention, as described herein. To simplify the drawings, the illustrative schemes depict azido amino acid analogs ε-azido-α-methyl-L-lysine and ε-azido-α-methyl-D-lysine, and alkyne amino acid analogs L-propargylglycine, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, and (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid. Thus, in the following synthetic schemes, each R₁, R₂, R₇ and R₈ is —H; each L₁ is —(CH₂)₄—; and each L₂ is —(CH₂)—. However, as noted throughout the detailed description above, many other amino acid analogs can be employed in which R₁, R₂, R₇, R₈, L₁ and L₂ can be independently selected from the various structures disclosed herein.

Synthetic Scheme 1 describes the preparation of several compounds of the invention. Ni(II) complexes of Schiff bases derived from the chiral auxiliary (S)-2-[N—(N′-benzylprolyl)amino]benzophenone (BPB) and amino acids such as glycine or alanine are prepared as described in Belokon et al., (1998), Tetrahedron Asymm. 9:4249-4252. The resulting complexes are subsequently reacted with alkylating reagents comprising an azido or alkynyl moiety to yield enantiomerically enriched compounds. If desired, the resulting compounds can be protected for use in peptide synthesis.

In the general method for the synthesis of peptidomimetic macrocycles shown in Synthetic Scheme 2, the peptidomimetic precursor contains an azide moiety and an alkyne moiety and is synthesized by solution-phase or solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the commercially available amino acid N-α-Fmoc-L-propargylglycine and the N-α-Fmoc-protected forms of the amino acids (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, N-methyl-ε-azido-L-lysine, and N-methyl-ε-azido-D-lysine. The peptidomimetic precursor is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA). The peptidomimetic precursor is reacted as a crude mixture or is purified prior to reaction with a macrocyclization catalyst such as a Cu(I) in organic or aqueous solutions (Rostovtsev et al., (2002), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41:2596-2599; Tornoe et al., (2002), J. Org. Chem. 67:3057-3064; Deiters et al., (2003), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125:11782-11783; Punna et al., (2005), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44:2215-2220). In one embodiment, the triazole forming reaction is performed under conditions that favor helix formation. In one embodiment, the macrocyclization step is performed in a solvent chosen from the group consisting of H₂O, THF, CH₃CN, DMF, DIPEA, tBuOH or a mixture thereof. In another embodiment, the macrocyclization step is performed in DMF. In some embodiments, the macrocyclization step is performed in a buffered aqueous or partially aqueous solvent.

In the general method for the synthesis of peptidomimetic macrocycles shown in Synthetic Scheme 3, the peptidomimetic precursor contains an azide moiety and an alkyne moiety and is synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the commercially available amino acid N-α-Fmoc-L-propargylglycine and the N-α-Fmoc-protected forms of the amino acids (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, N-methyl-ε-azido-L-lysine, and N-methyl-ε-azido-D-lysine. The peptidomimetic precursor is reacted with a macrocyclization catalyst such as a Cu(I) catalyst on the resin as a crude mixture (Rostovtsev et al., (2002), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41:2596-2599; Tornoe et al., (2002), J. Org. Chem. 67:3057-3064; Deiters et al., (2003), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125:11782-11783; Punna et al., (2005), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44:2215-2220). The resultant triazole-containing peptidomimetic macrocycle is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA). In some embodiments, the macrocyclization step is performed in a solvent chosen from the group consisting of CH₂Cl₂, ClCH₂CH₂Cl, DMF, THF, NMP, DIPEA, 2,6-lutidine, pyridine, DMSO, H₂O or a mixture thereof. In some embodiments, the macrocyclization step is performed in a buffered aqueous or partially aqueous solvent.

In the general method for the synthesis of peptidomimetic macrocycles shown in Synthetic Scheme 4, the peptidomimetic precursor contains an azide moiety and an alkyne moiety and is synthesized by solution-phase or solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the commercially available amino acid N-α-Fmoc-L-propargylglycine and the N-α-Fmoc-protected forms of the amino acids (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, N-methyl-ε-azido-L-lysine, and N-methyl-ε-azido-D-lysine. The peptidomimetic precursor is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA). The peptidomimetic precursor is reacted as a crude mixture or is purified prior to reaction with a macrocyclization catalyst such as a Ru(II) catalyst, for example Cp*RuCl(PPh₃)₂ or [Cp*RuCl]₄ (Rasmussen et al., (2007), Org. Lett. 9:5337-5339; Zhang et al., (2005), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127:15998-15999). In some embodiments, the macrocyclization step is performed in a solvent chosen from the group consisting of DMF, CH₃CN and THF.

In the general method for the synthesis of peptidomimetic macrocycles shown in Synthetic Scheme 5, the peptidomimetic precursor contains an azide moiety and an alkyne moiety and is synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the commercially available amino acid N-α-Fmoc-L-propargylglycine and the N-α-Fmoc-protected forms of the amino acids (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-4-pentynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-6-heptynoic acid, (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-6-heptynoic acid, N-methyl-ε-azido-L-lysine, and N-methyl-ε-azido-D-lysine. The peptidomimetic precursor is reacted with a macrocyclization catalyst such as a Ru(II) catalyst on the resin as a crude mixture. For example, the catalyst can be Cp*RuCl(PPh₃)₂ or [Cp*RuCl]₄ (Rasmussen et al., (2007), Org. Lett. 9:5337-5339; Zhang et al., (2005), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127:15998-15999). In some embodiments, the macrocyclization step is performed in a solvent chosen from the group consisting of CH₂Cl₂, ClCH₂CH₂Cl, CH₃CN, DMF, and THF.

The present invention contemplates the use of non-naturally-occurring amino acids and amino acid analogs in the synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein. Any amino acid or amino acid analog amenable to the synthetic methods employed for the synthesis of stable triazole containing peptidomimetic macrocycles can be used. For example, L-propargylglycine is contemplated as a useful amino acid. However, other alkyne-containing amino acids that contain a different amino acid side chain are also useful in the invention. For example, L-propargylglycine contains one methylene unit between the α-carbon of the amino acid and the alkyne of the amino acid side chain. The invention also contemplates the use of amino acids with multiple methylene units between the α-carbon and the alkyne. Also, the azido-analogs of amino acids L-lysine, D-lysine, α-methyl-L-lysine, and α-methyl-D-lysine are contemplated as useful amino acids. However, other terminal azide amino acids that contain a different amino acid side chain are also useful in the invention. For example, the azido-analog of L-lysine contains four methylene units between the α-carbon of the amino acid and the terminal azide of the amino acid side chain. The invention also contemplates the use of amino acids with fewer than or greater than four methylene units between the α-carbon and the terminal azide. Table 2 shows some amino acids useful in the preparation of peptidomimetic macrocycles.

TABLE 2 Exemplary amino acids useful in the preparation of peptidomimetic macrocycles

In some embodiments the amino acids and amino acid analogs are of the D-configuration. In other embodiments they are of the L-configuration. In some embodiments, some of the amino acids and amino acid analogs contained in the peptidomimetic are of the D-configuration while some of the amino acids and amino acid analogs are of the L-configuration. In some embodiments the amino acid analogs are α,α-disubstituted, such as α-methyl-L-propargylglycine, α-methyl-D-propargylglycine, ε-azido-α-methyl-L-lysine, and ε-azido-α-methyl-D-lysine. In some embodiments the amino acid analogs are N-alkylated, e.g., N-methyl-L-propargylglycine, N-methyl-D-propargylglycine, N-methyl-ε-azido-L-lysine, and N-methyl-ε-azido-D-lysine.

In some embodiments, the —NH moiety of the amino acid is protected using a protecting group, including without limitation -Fmoc and -Boc. In other embodiments, the amino acid is not protected prior to synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycle.

In other embodiments, peptidomimetic macrocycles of Formula III are synthesized. The preparation of such macrocycles is described, for example, in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/957,325, filed on Dec. 17, 2007. The following synthetic schemes describe the preparation of such compounds. To simplify the drawings, the illustrative schemes depict amino acid analogs derived from L- or D-cysteine, in which L₁ and L₃ are both —(CH₂)—. However, as noted throughout the detailed description above, many other amino acid analogs can be employed in which L₁ and L₃ can be independently selected from the various structures disclosed herein. The symbols “[AA]_(m)”, “[AA]_(n)”, “[AA]_(o)” represent a sequence of amide bond-linked moieties such as natural or unnatural amino acids. As described previously, each occurrence of “AA” is independent of any other occurrence of “AA”, and a formula such as “[A]_(m)” encompasses, for example, sequences of non-identical amino acids as well as sequences of identical amino acids.

In Scheme 6, the peptidomimetic precursor contains two —SH moieties and is synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using commercially available N-α-Fmoc amino acids such as N-α-Fmoc-S-trityl-L-cysteine or N-α-Fmoc-S-trityl-D-cysteine. α-methylated versions of D-cysteine or L-cysteine are generated by known methods (Seebach et al., (1996), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 35:2708-2748, and references therein) and then converted to the appropriately protected N-α-Fmoc-S-trityl monomers by known methods (Bioorganic Chemistry: Peptides and Proteins, Oxford University Press, New York: 1998, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). The precursor peptidomimetic is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA). The precursor peptidomimetic is reacted as a crude mixture or is purified prior to reaction with X-L₂-Y in organic or aqueous solutions. In some embodiments the alkylation reaction is performed under dilute conditions (i.e., 0.15 mmol/L) to favor macrocyclization and to avoid polymerization. In some embodiments, the alkylation reaction is performed in organic solutions such as liquid NH₃ (Mosberg et al., (1985), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107:2986-2987; Szewczuk et al., (1992), Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. 40:233-242), NH₃/MeOH, or NH₃/DMF (Or et al., (1991), J. Org. Chem. 56:3146-3149). In other embodiments, the alkylation is performed in an aqueous solution such as 6 M guanidinium HCl, pH 8 (Brunel et al., (2005), Chem. Commun (20):2552-2554). In other embodiments, the solvent used for the alkylation reaction is DMF or dichloroethane.

In Scheme 7, the precursor peptidomimetic contains two or more —SH moieties, of which two are specially protected to allow their selective deprotection and subsequent alkylation for macrocycle formation. The precursor peptidomimetic is synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using commercially available N-α-Fmoc amino acids such as N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl-L-cysteine or N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl-D-cysteine. α-methylated versions of D-cysteine or L-cysteine are generated by known methods (Seebach et al., (1996), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 35:2708-2748, and references therein) and then converted to the appropriately protected N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl monomers by known methods (Bioorganic Chemistry: Peptides and Proteins, Oxford University Press, New York: 1998, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). The Mmt protecting groups of the peptidomimetic precursor are then selectively cleaved by standard conditions (e.g., mild acid such as 1% TFA in DCM). The precursor peptidomimetic is then reacted on the resin with X-L₂-Y in an organic solution. For example, the reaction takes place in the presence of a hindered base such as diisopropylethylamine. In some embodiments, the alkylation reaction is performed in organic solutions such as liquid NH₃ (Mosberg et al., (1985), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107:2986-2987; Szewczuk et al., (1992), Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. 40:233-242), NH₃/MeOH or NH₃/DMF (Or et al., (1991), J. Org. Chem. 56:3146-3149). In other embodiments, the alkylation reaction is performed in DMF or dichloroethane. The peptidomimetic macrocycle is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA).

In Scheme 8, the peptidomimetic precursor contains two or more —SH moieties, of which two are specially protected to allow their selective deprotection and subsequent alkylation for macrocycle formation. The peptidomimetic precursor is synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using commercially available N-α-Fmoc amino acids such as N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl-L-cysteine, N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl-D-cysteine, N-α-Fmoc-S—S-t-butyl-L-cysteine, and N-α-Fmoc-S—S-t-butyl-D-cysteine. α-methylated versions of D-cysteine or L-cysteine are generated by known methods (Seebach et al., (1996), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 35:2708-2748, and references therein) and then converted to the appropriately protected N-α-Fmoc-S-p-methoxytrityl or N-α-Fmoc-S—S-t-butyl monomers by known methods (Bioorganic Chemistry: Peptides and Proteins, Oxford University Press, New York: 1998, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). The S—S-tButyl protecting group of the peptidomimetic precursor is selectively cleaved by known conditions (e.g., 20% 2-mercaptoethanol in DMF, reference: Galande et al., (2005), J. Comb. Chem. 7:174-177). The precursor peptidomimetic is then reacted on the resin with a molar excess of X-L₂-Y in an organic solution. For example, the reaction takes place in the presence of a hindered base such as diisopropylethylamine. The Mmt protecting group of the peptidomimetic precursor is then selectively cleaved by standard conditions (e.g., mild acid such as 1% TFA in DCM). The peptidomimetic precursor is then cyclized on the resin by treatment with a hindered base in organic solutions. In some embodiments, the alkylation reaction is performed in organic solutions such as NH₃/MeOH or NH₃/DMF (Or et al., (1991), J. Org. Chem. 56:3146-3149). The peptidomimetic macrocycle is then deprotected and cleaved from the solid-phase resin by standard conditions (e.g., strong acid such as 95% TFA).

In Scheme 9, the peptidomimetic precursor contains two L-cysteine moieties. The peptidomimetic precursor is synthesized by known biological expression systems in living cells or by known in vitro, cell-free, expression methods. The precursor peptidomimetic is reacted as a crude mixture or is purified prior to reaction with X-L2-Y in organic or aqueous solutions. In some embodiments the alkylation reaction is performed under dilute conditions (i.e., 0.15 mmol/L) to favor macrocyclization and to avoid polymerization. In some embodiments, the alkylation reaction is performed in organic solutions such as liquid NH₃ (Mosberg et al., (1985), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107:2986-2987; Szewczuk et al., (1992), Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. 40:233-242), NH₃/MeOH, or NH₃/DMF (Or et al., (1991), J. Org. Chem. 56:3146-3149). In other embodiments, the alkylation is performed in an aqueous solution such as 6 M guanidinium HCl, pH 8 (Brunel et al., (2005), Chem. Commun (20):2552-2554). In other embodiments, the alkylation is performed in DMF or dichloroethane. In another embodiment, the alkylation is performed in non-denaturing aqueous solutions, and in yet another embodiment the alkylation is performed under conditions that favor helical structure formation. In yet another embodiment, the alkylation is performed under conditions that favor the binding of the precursor peptidomimetic to another protein, so as to induce the formation of the bound helical conformation during the alkylation.

Various embodiments for X and Y are envisioned which are suitable for reacting with thiol groups. In general, each X or Y is independently be selected from the general category shown in Table 3. For example, X and Y are halides such as —Cl, —Br or —I. Any of the macrocycle-forming linkers described herein may be used in any combination with any of the sequences shown in Tables 1-4 and also with any of the R— substituents indicated herein.

TABLE 3 Examples of Reactive Groups Capable of Reacting with Thiol Groups and Resulting Linkages X or Y Resulting Covalent Linkage acrylamide Thioether halide (e.g., alkyl or aryl halide) Thioether sulfonate Thioether aziridine Thioether epoxide Thioether haloacetamide Thioether maleimide Thioether sulfonate ester Thioether

The present invention contemplates the use of both naturally-occurring and non-naturally-occurring amino acids and amino acid analogs in the synthesis of the peptidomimetic macrocycles of Formula (III). Any amino acid or amino acid analog amenable to the synthetic methods employed for the synthesis of stable bis-sulfhydryl containing peptidomimetic macrocycles can be used. For example, cysteine is contemplated as a useful amino acid. However, sulfur containing amino acids other than cysteine that contain a different amino acid side chain are also useful. For example, cysteine contains one methylene unit between the α-carbon of the amino acid and the terminal —SH of the amino acid side chain. The invention also contemplates the use of amino acids with multiple methylene units between the α-carbon and the terminal —SH. Non-limiting examples include α-methyl-L-homocysteine and α-methyl-D-homocysteine. In some embodiments the amino acids and amino acid analogs are of the D-configuration. In other embodiments they are of the L-configuration. In some embodiments, some of the amino acids and amino acid analogs contained in the peptidomimetic are of the D-configuration while some of the amino acids and amino acid analogs are of the L-configuration. In some embodiments the amino acid analogs are α,α-disubstituted, such as α-methyl-L-cysteine and α-methyl-D-cysteine.

The invention includes macrocycles in which macrocycle-forming linkers are used to link two or more —SH moieties in the peptidomimetic precursors to form the peptidomimetic macrocycles. As described above, the macrocycle-forming linkers impart conformational rigidity, increased metabolic stability and/or increased cell penetrability. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the macrocycle-forming linkages stabilize a helical secondary structure of the peptidomimetic macrocycles. The macrocycle-forming linkers are of the formula X-L₂-Y, wherein both X and Y are the same or different moieties, as defined above. Both X and Y have the chemical characteristics that allow one macrocycle-forming linker -L₂- to bis alkylate the bis-sulfhydryl containing peptidomimetic precursor. As defined above, the linker -L₂- includes alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene, or —R₄—K—R₄—, all of which can be optionally substituted with an R₅ group, as defined above. Furthermore, one to three carbon atoms within the macrocycle-forming linkers -L₂-, other than the carbons attached to the —SH of the sulfhydryl containing amino acid, are optionally substituted with a heteroatom such as N, S or O.

The L₂ component of the macrocycle-forming linker X-L₂-Y may be varied in length depending on, among other things, the distance between the positions of the two amino acid analogs used to form the peptidomimetic macrocycle. Furthermore, as the lengths of L₁ and/or L₃ components of the macrocycle-forming linker are varied, the length of L₂ can also be varied in order to create a linker of appropriate overall length for forming a stable peptidomimetic macrocycle. For example, if the amino acid analogs used are varied by adding an additional methylene unit to each of L₁ and L₃, the length of L₂ are decreased in length by the equivalent of approximately two methylene units to compensate for the increased lengths of L₁ and L₃.

In some embodiments, L₂ is an alkylene group of the formula —(CH₂)_(n)—, where n is an integer between about 1 and about 15. For example, n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10. In other embodiments, L₂ is an alkenylene group. In still other embodiments, L₂ is an aryl group.

Table 4 shows additional embodiments of X-L₂-Y groups.

TABLE 4 Exemplary X-L2-Y groups of the invention

Each X and Y in this table, is, for example, independently Cl—, Br— or I—.

Additional methods of forming peptidomimetic macrocycles which are envisioned as suitable to perform the present invention include those disclosed by Mustapa, M. Firouz Mohd et al., J. Org. Chem (2003), 68, pp. 8193-8198; Yang, Bin et al., Bioorg Med. Chem. Lett. (2004), 14, pp. 1403-1406; U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,851; U.S. Pat. No. 5,446,128; U.S. Pat. No. 5,824,483; U.S. Pat. No. 6,713,280; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,202,332. In such embodiments, amino acid precursors are used containing an additional substituent R— at the α position. Such amino acids are incorporated into the macrocycle precursor at the desired positions, which may be at the positions where the crosslinker is substituted or, alternatively, elsewhere in the sequence of the macrocycle precursor. Cyclization of the precursor is then effected according to the indicated method.

For example, a peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (II) is prepared as indicated:

wherein each AA₁, AA₂, AA₃ is independently an amino acid side chain.

In other embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle of Formula (II) is prepared as indicated:

wherein each AA₁, AA₂, AA₃ is independently an amino acid side chain.

In some embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle is obtained in more than one isomer, for example due to the configuration of a double bond within the structure of the crosslinker (E vs Z). Such isomers can or cannot be separable by conventional chromatographic methods. In some embodiments, one isomer has improved biological properties relative to the other isomer. In one embodiment, an E crosslinker olefin isomer of a peptidomimetic macrocycle has better solubility, better target affinity, better in vivo or in vitro efficacy, higher helicity, or improved cell permeability relative to its Z counterpart. In another embodiment, a Z crosslinker olefin isomer of a peptidomimetic macrocycle has better solubility, better target affinity, better in vivo or in vitro efficacy, higher helicity, or improved cell permeability relative to its E counterpart

In some embodiments, it is desirable to modify the configuration of the resulting peptidomimetic macrocycle. For instance, when a 3₁₀ helical configuration is more desirable, additional substitutions or modifications to the macrocycle can be made to induce or bias such conformations, such as substituting 2-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) for one or more amino acids in the sequence. See, for example, Boal et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 6986-6987. In one embodiment, the helical macrocycle comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more Aib substitutions.

Assays

The properties of the peptidomimetic macrocycles are assayed, for example, by using the methods described below. In some embodiments, a peptidomimetic macrocycle has improved biological properties relative to a corresponding polypeptide lacking the substituents described herein

Assay to Determine Helicity.

In solution, the secondary structure of polypeptides with helical domains will reach a dynamic equilibrium between random coil structures and helical structures, often expressed as a “percent helicity”. Thus, for example, unmodified helical domains may be predominantly random coils in solution, with helical content usually under 25%. Peptidomimetic macrocycles with optimized linkers, on the other hand, possess, for example, a helicity that is at least two-fold greater than that of a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide. In some embodiments, macrocycles will possess a helicity of greater than 50%. To assay the helicity of peptidomimetic macrocycles, the compounds are dissolved in an aqueous solution (e.g., 50 mM potassium phosphate solution at pH 7, or distilled H₂O, to concentrations of 25-50 μM). Circular dichroism (CD) spectra are obtained on a spectropolarimeter (e.g., Jasco J-710) using standard measurement parameters (e.g., temperature, 20° C.; wavelength, 190-260 nm; step resolution, 0.5 nm; speed, 20 nm/sec; accumulations, 10; response, 1 sec; bandwidth, 1 nm; path length, 0.1 cm). The helical content of each peptide is calculated by dividing the mean residue ellipticity (e.g., [Φ]222 obs) by the reported value for a model helical decapeptide (Yang et al., (1986), Methods Enzymol. 130:208)).

Assay to Determine Melting Temperature (Tm).

A peptidomimetic macrocycle comprising a secondary structure such as a helix exhibits, for example, a higher melting temperature than a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide. Typically peptidomimetic macrocycles exhibit Tm of >60° C. representing a highly stable structure in aqueous solutions. To assay the effect of macrocycle formation on melting temperature, peptidomimetic macrocycles or unmodified peptides are dissolved in distilled H₂O (e.g., at a final concentration of 50 μM) and the Tm is determined by measuring the change in ellipticity over a temperature range (e.g., 4 to 95° C.) on a spectropolarimeter (e.g., Jasco J-710) using standard parameters (e.g., wavelength 222 nm; step resolution, 0.5 nm; speed, 20 nm/sec; accumulations, 10; response, 1 sec; bandwidth, 1 nm; temperature increase rate: 1° C./min; path length, 0.1 cm).

Protease Resistance Assay.

The amide bond of the peptide backbone is susceptible to hydrolysis by proteases, thereby rendering peptidic compounds vulnerable to rapid degradation in vivo. Peptide helix formation, however, typically buries the amide backbone and therefore may shield it from proteolytic cleavage. The peptidomimetic macrocycles of the present invention may be subjected to in vitro trypsin proteolysis to assess for any change in degradation rate compared to a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide. For example, the peptidomimetic macrocycle and a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide are incubated with trypsin agarose and the reactions quenched at various time points by centrifugation and subsequent HPLC injection to quantitate the residual substrate by ultraviolet absorption at 280 nm. Briefly, the peptidomimetic macrocycle and peptidomimetic precursor (5 mcg) are incubated with trypsin agarose (Pierce) (S/E˜125) for 0, 10, 20, 90, and 180 minutes. Reactions are quenched by tabletop centrifugation at high speed; remaining substrate in the isolated supernatant is quantified by HPLC-based peak detection at 280 nm. The proteolytic reaction displays first order kinetics and the rate constant, k, is determined from a plot of ln [S] versus time (k=−1Xslope).

Ex Vivo Stability Assay.

Peptidomimetic macrocycles with optimized linkers possess, for example, an ex vivo half-life that is at least two-fold greater than that of a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide, and possess an ex vivo half-life of 12 hours or more. For ex vivo serum stability studies, a variety of assays may be used. For example, a peptidomimetic macrocycle and a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide (2 mcg) are incubated with fresh mouse, rat and/or human serum (2 mL) at 37° C. for 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 24 hours. To determine the level of intact compound, the following procedure may be used: The samples are extracted by transferring 100 μL of sera to 2 ml centrifuge tubes followed by the addition of 10 μL of 50% formic acid and 500 μL acetonitrile and centrifugation at 14,000 RPM for 10 min at 4±2° C. The supernatants are then transferred to fresh 2 ml tubes and evaporated on Turbovap under N₂<10 psi, 37° C. The samples are reconstituted in 100 μL of 50:50 acetonitrile:water and submitted to LC-MS/MS analysis.

In Vitro Binding Assays.

To assess the binding and affinity of peptidomimetic macrocycles and peptidomimetic precursors to acceptor proteins, a fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) is used, for example. The FPA technique measures the molecular orientation and mobility using polarized light and fluorescent tracer. When excited with polarized light, fluorescent tracers (e.g., FITC) attached to molecules with high apparent molecular weights (e.g., FITC-labeled peptides bound to a large protein) emit higher levels of polarized fluorescence due to their slower rates of rotation as compared to fluorescent tracers attached to smaller molecules (e.g., FITC-labeled peptides that are free in solution).

For example, fluoresceinated peptidomimetic macrocycles (25 nM) are incubated with the acceptor protein (25-1000 nM) in binding buffer (140 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4) for 30 minutes at room temperature. Binding activity is measured, for example, by fluorescence polarization on a luminescence spectrophotometer (e.g., Perkin-Elmer LS50B). K_(D) values may be determined by nonlinear regression analysis using, for example, Graphpad Prism software (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, Calif.). A peptidomimetic macrocycle shows, in some instances, similar or lower K_(D) than a corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptide.

In Vitro Displacement Assays to Characterize Antagonists of Peptide-Protein Interactions.

To assess the binding and affinity of compounds that antagonize the interaction between a peptide and an acceptor protein, a fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) utilizing a fluoresceinated peptidomimetic macrocycle derived from a peptidomimetic precursor sequence is used, for example. The FPA technique measures the molecular orientation and mobility using polarized light and fluorescent tracer. When excited with polarized light, fluorescent tracers (e.g., FITC) attached to molecules with high apparent molecular weights (e.g., FITC-labeled peptides bound to a large protein) emit higher levels of polarized fluorescence due to their slower rates of rotation as compared to fluorescent tracers attached to smaller molecules (e.g., FITC-labeled peptides that are free in solution). A compound that antagonizes the interaction between the fluoresceinated peptidomimetic macrocycle and an acceptor protein will be detected in a competitive binding FPA experiment.

For example, putative antagonist compounds (1 nM to 1 mM) and a fluoresceinated peptidomimetic macrocycle (25 nM) are incubated with the acceptor protein (50 nM) in binding buffer (140 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4) for 30 minutes at room temperature. Antagonist binding activity is measured, for example, by fluorescence polarization on a luminescence spectrophotometer (e.g., Perkin-Elmer LS50B). K_(D) values may be determined by nonlinear regression analysis using, for example, GraphPad Prism software (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, Calif.).

Any class of molecule, such as small organic molecules, peptides, oligonucleotides or proteins can be examined as putative antagonists in this assay.

Assay for Protein-Ligand Binding by Affinity Selection-Mass Spectrometry

To assess the binding and affinity of test compounds for proteins, an affinity-selection mass spectrometry assay is used, for example Protein-ligand binding experiments are conducted according to the following representative procedure outlined for a system-wide control experiment using 1 μM peptidomimetic macrocycle plus 5 μM target protein. A 1 μL DMSO aliquot of a 40 μM stock solution of peptidomimetic macrocycle is dissolved in 19 μL of PBS (Phosphate-buffered saline: 50 mM, pH 7.5 Phosphate buffer containing 150 mM NaCl). The resulting solution is mixed by repeated pipetting and clarified by centrifugation at 10 000 g for 10 min. To a 4 μL aliquot of the resulting supernatant is added 4 μL of 10 μM target protein in PBS. Each 8.0 μL experimental sample thus contains 40 pmol (1.5 μg) of protein at 5.0 μM concentration in PBS plus 1 μM peptidomimetic macrocycle and 2.5% DMSO. Duplicate samples thus prepared for each concentration point are incubated for 60 min at room temperature, and then chilled to 4° C. prior to size-exclusion chromatography-LC-MS analysis of 5.0 μL injections. Samples containing a target protein, protein-ligand complexes, and unbound compounds are injected onto an SEC column, where the complexes are separated from non-binding component by a rapid SEC step. The SEC column eluate is monitored using UV detectors to confirm that the early-eluting protein fraction, which elutes in the void volume of the SEC column, is well resolved from unbound components that are retained on the column. After the peak containing the protein and protein-ligand complexes elutes from the primary UV detector, it enters a sample loop where it is excised from the flow stream of the SEC stage and transferred directly to the LC-MS via a valving mechanism. The (M+3H)³⁺ ion of the peptidomimetic macrocycle is observed by ESI-MS at the expected m/z, confirming the detection of the protein-ligand complex.

Assay for Protein-Ligand K_(D) Titration Experiments.

To assess the binding and affinity of test compounds for proteins, a protein-ligand K_(D) titration experiment is performed, for example Protein-ligand K_(D) titrations experiments are conducted as follows: 2 μL DMSO aliquots of a serially diluted stock solution of titrant peptidomimetic macrocycle (5, 2.5, . . . , 0.098 mM) are prepared then dissolved in 38 μL of PBS. The resulting solutions are mixed by repeated pipetting and clarified by centrifugation at 10 000 g for 10 min. To 4.0 μL aliquots of the resulting supernatants is added 4.0 μL of 10 μM target protein in PBS. Each 8.0 μL experimental sample thus contains 40 pmol (1.5 μg) of protein at 5.0 μM concentration in PBS, varying concentrations (125, 62.5, . . . , 0.24 μM) of the titrant peptide, and 2.5% DMSO. Duplicate samples thus prepared for each concentration point are incubated at room temperature for 30 min, then chilled to 4° C. prior to SEC-LC-MS analysis of 2.0 μL injections. The (M+H)¹⁺, (M+2H)²⁺, (M+3H)³⁺, and/or (M+Na)¹⁺ ion is observed by ESI-MS; extracted ion chromatograms are quantified, then fit to equations to derive the binding affinity K_(D) as described in Annis, D. A.; Nazef, N.; Chuang, C. C.; Scott, M. P.; Nash, H. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 15495-15503; also in D. A. Annis, C.-C. Chuang, and N. Nazef. In Mass Spectrometry in Medicinal Chemistry. Edited by Wanner K, Höfner G: Wiley-VCH; 2007:121-184. Mannhold R, Kubinyi H, Folkers G (Series Editors): Methods and Principles in Medicinal Chemistry.

Assay for Competitive Binding Experiments by Affinity Selection-Mass Spectrometry

To determine the ability of test compounds to bind competitively to proteins, an affinity selection mass spectrometry assay is performed, for example. A mixture of ligands at 40 μM per component is prepared by combining 2 μL aliquots of 400 μM stocks of each of the three compounds with 14 μL of DMSO. Then, 1 μL aliquots of this 40 μM per component mixture are combined with 1 μL DMSO aliquots of a serially diluted stock solution of titrant peptidomimetic macrocycle (10, 5, 2.5, . . . , 0.078 mM). These 2 μL samples are dissolved in 38 μL of PBS. The resulting solutions were mixed by repeated pipetting and clarified by centrifugation at 10 000 g for 10 min. To 4.0 μL aliquots of the resulting supernatants is added 4.0 μL of 10 μM target protein in PBS. Each 8.0 μL experimental sample thus contains 40 pmol (1.5 μg) of protein at 5.0 μM concentration in PBS plus 0.5 μM ligand, 2.5% DMSO, and varying concentrations (125, 62.5, . . . , 0.98 μM) of the titrant peptidomimetic macrocycle. Duplicate samples thus prepared for each concentration point are incubated at room temperature for 60 min, then chilled to 4° C. prior to SEC-LC-MS analysis of 2.0 μL injections. Additional details on these and other methods are provided in “A General Technique to Rank Protein-Ligand Binding Affinities and Determine Allosteric vs. Direct Binding Site Competition in Compound Mixtures.” Annis, D. A.; Nazef, N.; Chuang, C. C.; Scott, M. P.; Nash, H. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 15495-15503; also in “ALIS: An Affinity Selection-Mass Spectrometry System for the Discovery and Characterization of Protein-Ligand Interactions” D. A. Annis, C.-C. Chuang, and N. Nazef. In Mass Spectrometry in Medicinal Chemistry. Edited by Wanner K, Hofner G: Wiley-VCH; 2007:121-184. Mannhold R, Kubinyi H, Folkers G (Series Editors): Methods and Principles in Medicinal Chemistry

Binding Assays in Intact Cells.

It is possible to measure binding of peptides or peptidomimetic macrocycles to their natural acceptors in intact cells by immunoprecipitation experiments. For example, intact cells are incubated with fluoresceinated (FITC-labeled) compounds for 4 hours in the absence of serum, followed by serum replacement and further incubation that ranges from 4-18 hours. Cells are then pelleted and incubated in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 7.6, 150 mM NaCl, 1% CHAPS and protease inhibitor cocktail) for 10 minutes at 4° C. Extracts are centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 15 minutes and supernatants collected and incubated with 10 μL goat anti-FITC antibody for 2 hours, rotating at 4° C. followed by further 2 hours incubation at 4° C. with protein A/G Sepharose (50 μL of 50% bead slurry). After quick centrifugation, the pellets are washed in lysis buffer containing increasing salt concentration (e.g., 150, 300, 500 mM). The beads are then re-equilibrated at 150 mM NaCl before addition of SDS-containing sample buffer and boiling. After centrifugation, the supernatants are optionally electrophoresed using 4%-12% gradient Bis-Tris gels followed by transfer into Immobilon-P membranes. After blocking, blots are optionally incubated with an antibody that detects FITC and also with one or more antibodies that detect proteins that bind to the peptidomimetic macrocycle.

Cellular Penetrability Assays.

A peptidomimetic macrocycle is, for example, more cell penetrable compared to a corresponding uncrosslinked macrocycle. Peptidomimetic macrocycles with optimized linkers possess, for example, cell penetrability that is at least two-fold greater than a corresponding uncrosslinked macrocycle, and often 20% or more of the applied peptidomimetic macrocycle will be observed to have penetrated the cell after 4 hours. To measure the cell penetrability of peptidomimetic macrocycles and corresponding uncrosslinked macrocycle, intact cells are incubated with fluoresceinated peptidomimetic macrocycles or corresponding uncrosslinked macrocycle (10 μM) for 4 hours in serum free media at 37° C., washed twice with media and incubated with trypsin (0.25%) for 10 min at 37° C. The cells are washed again and resuspended in PBS. Cellular fluorescence is analyzed, for example, by using either a FACSCalibur flow cytometer or Cellomics' KineticScan® HCS Reader.

In Vivo Stability Assay.

To investigate the in vivo stability of the peptidomimetic macrocycles, the compounds are, for example, administered to mice and/or rats by IV, IP, PO or inhalation routes at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 50 mg/kg and blood specimens withdrawn at 0′, 5′, 15′, 30′, 1 hour, 4 hours, 8 hours and 24 hours post-injection. Levels of intact compound in 25 μL of fresh serum are then measured by LC-MS/MS as above.

In Vitro Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication

This influenza antiviral evaluation assay examines the effects of compounds at designated dose-response concentrations. See also Noah, J. W., W. Severson, D. L. Noah, L. Rasmussen, E. L. White, and C. B. Jonsson, Antiviral Res, 2007. 73(1): p. 50-9. Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells are used in the assay to test the efficacy of the compounds in preventing the cytopathic effect (CPE) induced by influenza infection. Either Ribavirin or Tamiflu is included in each run as a positive control compound. Subconfluent cultures of MDCK cells are plated into 96-well plates for the analysis of cell viability (cytotoxicity) and antiviral activity (CPE). Drugs are added to the cells 24 hours later. At a designated time, the CPE wells also receive 100 tissue culture infectious doses (100 TCID₅₀s) of titered influenza virus. 72 hours later the cell viability is determined. The effective compound concentrations which reduce viral-induced CPE by 25% (IC₂₅), 50% (IC₅₀), and 90% (IC₉₀) are calculated by regression analysis with semi-log curve fitting. Cell viability is assessed using CellTiter-Glo (Promega). The toxic concentration of drug that reduces cell numbers by 50% and 90% (TC₅₀ and TC₉₀, respectively) are calculated as well. Selectivity (therapeutic) indices (SI=TC/IC) are also calculated.

In Vivo Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication

In vivo testing of compounds can be performed, including testing on mammals such as rats or ferrets. Because ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) are naturally susceptible to infection with human influenza A and B viruses and their disease resembles that of human influenza, these animals have been widely used as a model for influenza virus pathogenesis and immunity studies. See Sidwell, R. W. and D. F. Smee, Antiviral Res, 2000. 48(1): p. 1-16; and Colacino, J. M., D. C. DeLong, J. R. Nelson, W. A. Spitzer, J. Tang, F. Victor, and C. Y. Wu, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 1990. 34(11): p. 2156-63. Ferrets are also the model of choice for the study of avian influenza virus H5N1 pathogenesis in mammals. See also Zitzow, L. A., T. Rowe, T. Morken, W.-J. Shieh, S. Zaki, and J. M. Katz, Pathogenesis of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Viruses in Ferrets. 2002. p. 4420-4429. The activities of the PB1 Stapled Peptides can be compared to Ribavirin or Oseltamivir as a positive control.

Briefly, young adult male or female ferrets (five ferrets for each treatment group) that are serologically negative by hemagglutination inhibition assay for currently circulating human influenza A or B viruses are quarantined at least 4 days prior to infection in a BSL-3+ animal holding area, where they are housed in cages contained in bioclean portable laminar flow clean room enclosures (Lab Products, Seaford, Del.). Prior to infection, baseline temperatures are measured twice daily for at least 3 days. Ferrets are anesthetized with ketamine (25 mg/kg), xylazine (2 mg/kg), and atropine (0.05 mg/kg) by the intramuscular route and infected intranasally (i.n.) with virus/ml in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) delivered to the nostrils. Control animals are mock-infected with an equivalent dilution (1:30) of noninfectious allantoic fluid. Stapled Peptides are administered i.v. or i.p. one hour after virus infection. Temperatures are measured twice daily using either a rectal thermometer or a subcutaneous implantable temperature transponder (BioMedic Data Systems, Inc., Seaford, Del.) with pre-infection values averaged to obtain a baseline temperature for each ferret. The change in temperature (in degrees Celsius) is calculated at each time point for each animal Clinical signs of sneezing (before anesthesia), inappetence, dyspnea, and level of activity are assessed. A scoring system is also used to assess the activity level, and based on the daily scores for each animal in a group a relative inactivity index will be calculated. Rectal temperature and activity scores are used to assess the severity of influenza infection and the ability of Stapled Peptides to prevent flu symptoms

Assaying Inhibition of Viral Polymerase Complex Assembly and Activity.

The technique of Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (“BiFC”) may be used to assay the compounds. In this technique, N- and C-terminal fragments of fluorescent proteins (e.g., GFP or its derivatives) are fused to interacting proteins. The two non-functional halves of the fluorophore, following the expression in cells, are brought into close proximity as a result of the specific protein interactions, which initiates folding of the fragments into an active protein and results in a detectable fluorescent signal at the site of the protein-protein complex. Thus, through BiFC, the specific interaction between PB1 and PA subunits can be visualized, quantified and localized within live cells. By disrupting PB1-PA interaction with a compound, the BiFC signal will be reduced, indicative of the presence of potential inhibitors targeting the assembly of PB1-PA complex. See Hemerka et al., J. Virol. 2009, 3944-3955.

Pharmaceutical Compositions and Routes of Administration

The peptidomimetic macrocycles also include pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives or prodrugs thereof. A “pharmaceutically acceptable derivative” means any pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, salt of an ester, pro-drug or other derivative of a compound of this invention which, upon administration to a recipient, is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) a compound of this invention. Particularly favored pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives are those that increase the bioavailability of the compounds when administered to a mammal (e.g., by increasing absorption into the blood of an orally administered compound) or which increases delivery of the active compound to a biological compartment (e.g., the brain or lymphatic system) relative to the parent species. Some pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives include a chemical group which increases aqueous solubility or active transport across the gastrointestinal mucosa.

In some embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycles are modified by covalently or non-covalently joining appropriate functional groups to enhance selective biological properties. Such modifications include those which increase biological penetration into a given biological compartment (e.g., blood, lymphatic system, central nervous system), increase oral availability, increase solubility to allow administration by injection, alter metabolism, and alter rate of excretion.

Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of this invention include those derived from pharmaceutically acceptable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of suitable acid salts include acetate, adipate, benzoate, benzenesulfonate, butyrate, citrate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, formate, fumarate, glycolate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydrochloride, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, lactate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, palmoate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, salicylate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, tosylate and undecanoate. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal (e.g., sodium), alkaline earth metal (e.g., magnesium), ammonium and N-(alkyl)₄ ⁺ salts.

For preparing pharmaceutical compositions from the compounds of the present invention, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include either solid or liquid carriers. Solid form preparations include powders, tablets, pills, capsules, cachets, suppositories, and dispersible granules. A solid carrier can be one or more substances, which also acts as diluents, flavoring agents, binders, preservatives, tablet disintegrating agents, or an encapsulating material. Details on techniques for formulation and administration are well described in the scientific and patent literature. See, e.g., the latest edition of Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maack Publishing Co, Easton Pa.

In powders, the carrier is a finely divided solid, which is in a mixture with the finely divided active component. In tablets, the active component is mixed with the carrier having the necessary binding properties in suitable proportions and compacted in the shape and size desired.

Suitable solid excipients are carbohydrate or protein fillers include, but are not limited to sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; starch from corn, wheat, rice, potato, or other plants; cellulose such as methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, or sodium carboxymethylcellulose; and gums including arabic and tragacanth; as well as proteins such as gelatin and collagen. If desired, disintegrating or solubilizing agents are added, such as the cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, alginic acid, or a salt thereof, such as sodium alginate.

Liquid form preparations include solutions, suspensions, and emulsions, for example, water or water/propylene glycol solutions. For parenteral injection, liquid preparations can be formulated in solution in aqueous polyethylene glycol solution.

The pharmaceutical preparation is preferably in unit dosage form. In such form the preparation is subdivided into unit doses containing appropriate quantities of the active component. The unit dosage form can be a packaged preparation, the package containing discrete quantities of preparation, such as packeted tablets, capsules, and powders in vials or ampoules. Also, the unit dosage form can be a capsule, tablet, cachet, or lozenge itself, or it can be the appropriate number of any of these in packaged form.

When the compositions of this invention comprise a combination of a peptidomimetic macrocycle and one or more additional therapeutic or prophylactic agents, both the compound and the additional agent should be present at dosage levels of between about 1 to 100%, and more preferably between about 5 to 95% of the dosage normally administered in a monotherapy regimen. In some embodiments, the additional agents are administered separately, as part of a multiple dose regimen, from the compounds of this invention. Alternatively, those agents are part of a single dosage form, mixed together with the compounds of this invention in a single composition.

In some embodiments, the compositions are present as unit dosage forms that can deliver, for example, from about 0.0001 mg to about 1,000 mg of the peptidomimetic macrocycles, salts thereof, prodrugs thereof, derivatives thereof, or any combination of these. Thus, the unit dosage forms can deliver, for example, in some embodiments, from about 1 mg to about 900 mg, from about 1 mg to about 800 mg, from about 1 mg to about 700 mg, from about 1 mg to about 600 mg, from about 1 mg to about 500 mg, from about 1 mg to about 400 mg, from about 1 mg to about 300 mg, from about 1 mg to about 200 mg, from about 1 mg to about 100 mg, from about 1 mg to about 10 mg, from about 1 mg to about 5 mg, from about 0.1 mg to about 10 mg, from about 0.1 mg to about 5 mg, from about 10 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 50 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 100 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 200 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 300 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 400 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 500 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 600 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 700 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 800 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 900 mg to about 1,000 mg, from about 10 mg to about 900 mg, from about 100 mg to about 800 mg, from about 200 mg to about 700 mg, or from about 300 mg to about 600 mg of the peptidomimetic macrocycles, salts thereof, prodrugs thereof, derivatives thereof, or any combination of these.

In some embodiments, the compositions are present as unit dosage forms that can deliver, for example, about 1 mg, about 2 mg, about 3 mg, about 4 mg, about 5 mg, about 6 mg, about 7 mg, about 8 mg, about 9 mg, about 10 mg, about 20 mg, about 30 mg, about 40 mg, about 50 mg, about 60 mg, about 70 mg, about 80 mg, about 90 mg, about 100 mg, about 150 mg, about 200 mg, about 250 mg, about 300 mg, about 350 mg, about 400 mg, about 500 mg, about 600 mg, about 700 mg, about 800 mg, or about 800 mg of peptidomimetic macrocycles, salts thereof, prodrugs thereof, derivatives thereof, or any combination of these.

Suitable routes of administration include, but are not limited to, oral, intravenous, rectal, aerosol, parenteral, ophthalmic, pulmonary, transmucosal, transdermal, vaginal, otic, nasal, and topical administration. In addition, by way of example only, parenteral delivery includes intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous, intramedullary injections, as well as intrathecal, direct intraventricular, intraperitoneal, intralymphatic, and intranasal injections.

In certain embodiments, a composition as described herein is administered in a local rather than systemic manner, for example, via injection of the compound directly into an organ. In specific embodiments, long acting formulations are administered by implantation (for example subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or by intramuscular injection. Furthermore, in other embodiments, the drug is delivered in a targeted drug delivery system, for example, in a liposome coated with organ-specific antibody. In such embodiments, the liposomes are targeted to and taken up selectively by the organ. In yet other embodiments, the compound as described herein is provided in the form of a rapid release formulation, in the form of an extended release formulation, or in the form of an intermediate release formulation. In yet other embodiments, the compound described herein is administered topically.

In another embodiment, compositions described herein are formulated for oral administration. Compositions described herein are formulated by combining a peptidomimetic macrocycle with, e.g., pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients. In various embodiments, the compounds described herein are formulated in oral dosage forms that include, by way of example only, tablets, powders, pills, dragees, capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, elixirs, slurries, suspensions and the like.

In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical preparations for oral use are obtained by mixing one or more solid excipient with one or more of the peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein, optionally grinding the resulting mixture, and processing the mixture of granules, after adding suitable auxiliaries, if desired, to obtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitable excipients are, in particular, fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; cellulose preparations such as: for example, maize starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth, methylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose; or others such as: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP or povidone) or calcium phosphate. In specific embodiments, disintegrating agents are optionally added. Disintegrating agents include, by way of example only, cross-linked croscarmellose sodium, polyvinylpyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate.

In one embodiment, dosage forms, such as dragee cores and tablets, are provided with one or more suitable coating. In specific embodiments, concentrated sugar solutions are used for coating the dosage form. The sugar solutions, optionally contain additional components, such as by way of example only, gum arabic, talc, polyvinylpyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs and/or pigments are also optionally added to the coatings for identification purposes. Additionally, the dyestuffs and/or pigments are optionally utilized to characterize different combinations of active compound doses.

In certain embodiments, therapeutically effective amounts of at least one of the peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein are formulated into other oral dosage forms. Oral dosage forms include push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. In specific embodiments, push-fit capsules contain the active ingredients in admixture with one or more filler. Fillers include, by way of example only, lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In other embodiments, soft capsules, contain one or more active compound that is dissolved or suspended in a suitable liquid. Suitable liquids include, by way of example only, one or more fatty oil, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycol. In addition, stabilizers are optionally added.

In other embodiments, therapeutically effective amounts of at least one of the peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein are formulated for buccal or sublingual administration. Formulations suitable for buccal or sublingual administration include, by way of example only, tablets, lozenges, or gels. In still other embodiments, the peptidomimetic macrocycles described herein are formulated for parenteral injection, including formulations suitable for bolus injection or continuous infusion. In specific embodiments, formulations for injection are presented in unit dosage form (e.g., in ampoules) or in multi-dose containers. Preservatives are, optionally, added to the injection formulations. In still other embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions are formulated in a form suitable for parenteral injection as a sterile suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles. Parenteral injection formulations optionally contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. In specific embodiments, pharmaceutical formulations for parenteral administration include aqueous solutions of the active compounds in water-soluble form. In additional embodiments, suspensions of the active compounds are prepared as appropriate oily injection suspensions. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles for use in the pharmaceutical compositions described herein include, by way of example only, fatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, such as ethyl oleate or triglycerides, or liposomes. In certain specific embodiments, aqueous injection suspensions contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, or dextran. Optionally, the suspension contains suitable stabilizers or agents which increase the solubility of the compounds to allow for the preparation of highly concentrated solutions. Alternatively, in other embodiments, the active ingredient is in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water, before use.

Pharmaceutical compositions herein can be administered, for example, once or twice or three or four or five or six times per day, or once or twice or three or four or five or six times per week, and can be administered, for example, for a day, a week, a month, 3 months, six months, a year, five years, or for example ten years.

Methods of Use

Generally, the invention discloses peptidomimetic macrocycles useful in the treatment of viral disorders. For example, peptidomimetic macrocycles derived from the PB1 helix sequence, or peptidomimetic macrocycles that bind selectively to the PB1 peptide binding site of the PA protein, may selectively inhibit influenza RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Peptidomimetic macrocycles derived from the PB2 helix sequence, or peptidomimetic macrocycles that bind selectively to the PB2 peptide binding site of the PB1 protein, may selectively inhibit influenza RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. When administered within a therapeutic window after infection, such peptidomimetic macrocycles may reduce the severity or duration of an influenza infection. When administered prophylactically, such peptidomimetic macrocycles may prevent infection by influenza viruses and thereby decrease the spread of influenza and reduce large-scale epidemics.

In one aspect, the present invention provides novel peptidomimetic macrocycles that are useful in competitive binding assays to identify agents which bind to the natural ligand(s) of the proteins or peptides upon which the peptidomimetic macrocycles are modeled. For example, in the PB1/PA system, labeled peptidomimetic macrocycles based on PB1 can be used in a PA binding assay along with small molecules that competitively bind to PA. Competitive binding studies allow for rapid in vitro evaluation and determination of drug candidates specific for the PB1/PA system. Such binding studies may be performed with any of the peptidomimetic macrocycles disclosed herein and their binding partners.

In other aspects, the present invention provides for both prophylactic and therapeutic methods of treating a subject infected with, at risk of, or susceptible to an influenza virus. These methods comprise administering an effective amount of a compound to a warm blooded animal, including a human. In some embodiments, the administration of the compounds of the present invention prevents the proliferation or transmission of an influenza virus.

As used herein, the term “treatment” is defined as the application or administration of a therapeutic agent to a patient, or application or administration of a therapeutic agent to an isolated tissue or cell line from a patient, who has a disease, a symptom of disease or a predisposition toward a disease, with the purpose to cure, heal, alleviate, relieve, alter, remedy, ameliorate, improve or affect the disease, the symptoms of disease or the predisposition toward disease.

In some embodiments, peptidomimetic macrocycles are used to treat diseases induced by influenza viruses. Like other viruses, the replication of influenza virus involves six phases; transmission, entry, replication, biosynthesis, assembly, and exit. Entry occurs by endocytosis, replication and vRNP assembly takes place in the nucleus, and the virus buds from the plasma membrane. In the infected patient, the virus targets airway epithelial cells.

The methods described herein are also useful for development and/or identification of agents for the treatment of infections caused by viruses such as Abelson leukemia virus, Abelson murine leukemia virus, Abelson's virus, Acute laryngotracheobronchitis virus, Adelaide River virus, Adeno associated virus group, Adenovirus, African horse sickness virus, African swine fever virus, AIDS virus, Aleutian mink disease parvovirus, Alpharetrovirus, Alphavirus, ALV related virus, Amapari virus, Aphthovirus, Aquareovirus, Arbovirus, Arbovirus C, arbovirus group A, arbovirus group B, Arenavirus group, Argentine hemorrhagic fever virus, Argentine hemorrhagic fever virus, Arterivirus, Astrovirus, Ateline herpesvirus group, Aujezky's disease virus, Aura virus, Ausduk disease virus, Australian bat lyssavirus, Aviadenovirus, avian erythroblastosis virus, avian infectious bronchitis virus, avian leukemia virus, avian leukosis virus, avian lymphomatosis virus, avian myeloblastosis virus, avian paramyxovirus, avian pneumoencephalitis virus, avian reticuloendotheliosis virus, avian sarcoma virus, avian type C retrovirus group, Avihepadnavirus, Avipoxvirus, B virus, B19 virus, Babanki virus, baboon herpesvirus, baculovirus, Barmah Forest virus, Bebaru virus, Berrimah virus, Betaretrovirus, Birnavirus, Bittner virus, BK virus, Black Creek Canal virus, bluetongue virus, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever virus, Boma disease virus, border disease of sheep virus, borna virus, bovine alphaherpesvirus 1, bovine alphaherpesvirus 2, bovine coronavirus, bovine ephemeral fever virus, bovine immunodeficiency virus, bovine leukemia virus, bovine leukosis virus, bovine mammillitis virus, bovine papillomavirus, bovine papular stomatitis virus, bovine parvovirus, bovine syncytial virus, bovine type C oncovirus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, Buggy Creek virus, bullet shaped virus group, Bunyamwera virus supergroup, Bunyavirus, Burkitt's lymphoma virus, Bwamba Fever, CA virus, Calicivirus, California encephalitis virus, camelpox virus, canarypox virus, canid herpesvirus, canine coronavirus, canine distemper virus, canine herpesvirus, canine minute virus, canine parvovirus, Cano Delgadito virus, caprine arthritis virus, caprine encephalitis virus, Caprine Herpes Virus, Capripox virus, Cardiovirus, caviid herpesvirus 1, Cercopithecid herpesvirus 1, cercopithecine herpesvirus 1, Cercopithecine herpesvirus 2, Chandipura virus, Changuinola virus, channel catfish virus, Charleville virus, chickenpox virus, Chikungunya virus, chimpanzee herpesvirus, chub reovirus, chum salmon virus, Cocal virus, Coho salmon reovirus, coital exanthema virus, Colorado tick fever virus, Coltivirus, Columbia SK virus, common cold virus, contagious ecthyma virus, contagious pustular dermatitis virus, Coronavirus, Corriparta virus, coryza virus, cowpox virus, coxsackie virus, CPV (cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus), cricket paralysis virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, croup associated virus, Cryptovirus, Cypovirus, Cytomegalovirus, cytomegalovirus group, cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus, deer papillomavirus, deltaretrovirus, dengue virus, Densovirus, Dependovirus, Dhori virus, diploma virus, Drosophila C virus, duck hepatitis B virus, duck hepatitis virus 1, duck hepatitis virus 2, duovirus, Duvenhage virus, Deformed wing virus DWV, eastern equine encephalitis virus, eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus, EB virus, Ebola virus, Ebola-like virus, echo virus, echovirus, echovirus 10, echovirus 28, echovirus 9, ectromelia virus, EEE virus, EIA virus, EIA virus, encephalitis virus, encephalomyocarditis group virus, encephalomyocarditis virus, Enterovirus, enzyme elevating virus, enzyme elevating virus (LDH), epidemic hemorrhagic fever virus, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, Epstein-Barr virus, equid alphaherpesvirus 1, equid alphaherpesvirus 4, equid herpesvirus 2, equine abortion virus, equine arteritis virus, equine encephalosis virus, equine infectious anemia virus, equine morbillivirus, equine rhinopneumonitis virus, equine rhinovirus, Eubenangu virus, European elk papillomavirus, European swine fever virus, Everglades virus, Eyach virus, felid herpesvirus 1, feline calicivirus, feline fibrosarcoma virus, feline herpesvirus, feline immunodeficiency virus, feline infectious peritonitis virus, feline leukemia/sarcoma virus, feline leukemia virus, feline panleukopenia virus, feline parvovirus, feline sarcoma virus, feline syncytial virus, Filovirus, Flanders virus, Flavivirus, foot and mouth disease virus, Fort Morgan virus, Four Corners hantavirus, fowl adenovirus 1, fowlpox virus, Friend virus, Gammaretrovirus, GB hepatitis virus, GB virus, German measles virus, Getah virus, gibbon ape leukemia virus, glandular fever virus, goatpox virus, golden shinner virus, Gonometa virus, goose parvovirus, granulosis virus, Gross' virus, ground squirrel hepatitis B virus, group A arbovirus, Guanarito virus, guinea pig cytomegalovirus, guinea pig type C virus, Hantaan virus, Hantavirus, hard clam reovirus, hare fibroma virus, HCMV (human cytomegalovirus), hemadsorption virus 2, hemagglutinating virus of Japan, hemorrhagic fever virus, hendra virus, Henipaviruses, Hepadnavirus, hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus group, hepatitis C virus, hepatitis D virus, hepatitis delta virus, hepatitis E virus, hepatitis F virus, hepatitis G virus, hepatitis nonA nonB virus, hepatitis virus, hepatitis virus (nonhuman), hepatoencephalomyelitis reovirus 3, Hepatovirus, heron hepatitis B virus, herpes B virus, herpes simplex virus, herpes simplex virus 1, herpes simplex virus 2, herpesvirus, herpesvirus 7, Herpesvirus ateles, Herpesvirus hominis, Herpesvirus infection, Herpesvirus saimiri, Herpesvirus suis, Herpesvirus varicellae, Highlands J virus, Hirame rhabdovirus, hog cholera virus, human adenovirus 2, human alphaherpesvirus 1, human alphaherpesvirus 2, human alphaherpesvirus 3, human B lymphotropic virus, human betaherpesvirus 5, human coronavirus, human cytomegalovirus group, human foamy virus, human gammaherpesvirus 4, human gammaherpesvirus 6, human hepatitis A virus, human herpesvirus 1 group, human herpesvirus 2 group, human herpesvirus 3 group, human herpesvirus 4 group, human herpesvirus 6, human herpesvirus 8, human immunodeficiency virus, human immunodeficiency virus 1, human immunodeficiency virus 2, human papillomavirus, human T cell leukemia virus, human T cell leukemia virus I, human T cell leukemia virus II, human T cell leukemia virus III, human T cell lymphoma virus I, human T cell lymphoma virus II, human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1, human T cell lymphotropic virus type 2, human T lymphotropic virus I, human T lymphotropic virus II, human T lymphotropic virus III, Ichnovirus, infantile gastroenteritis virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus, infectious pancreatic necrosis virus, influenza virus A, influenza virus B, influenza virus C, influenza virus D, influenza virus pr8, insect iridescent virus, insect virus, iridovirus, Japanese B virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, JC virus, Junin virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, Kemerovo virus, Kilham's rat virus, Klamath virus, Kolongo virus, Korean hemorrhagic fever virus, kumba virus, Kysanur forest disease virus, Kyzylagach virus, La Crosse virus, lactic dehydrogenase elevating virus, lactic dehydrogenase virus, Lagos bat virus, Langur virus, lapine parvovirus, Lassa fever virus, Lassa virus, latent rat virus, LCM virus, Leaky virus, Lentivirus, Leporipoxvirus, leukemia virus, leukovirus, lumpy skin disease virus, lymphadenopathy associated virus, Lymphocryptovirus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, lymphoproliferative virus group, Machupo virus, mad itch virus, mammalian type B oncovirus group, mammalian type B retroviruses, mammalian type C retrovirus group, mammalian type D retroviruses, mammary tumor virus, Mapuera virus, Marburg virus, Marburg-like virus, Mason Pfizer monkey virus, Mastadenovirus, Mayaro virus, ME virus, measles virus, Menangle virus, Mengo virus, Mengovirus, Middelburg virus, milkers nodule virus, mink enteritis virus, minute virus of mice, MLV related virus, MM virus, Mokola virus, Molluscipoxvirus, Molluscum contagiosum virus, monkey B virus, monkeypox virus, Mononegavirales, Morbillivirus, Mount Elgon bat virus, mouse cytomegalovirus, mouse encephalomyelitis virus, mouse hepatitis virus, mouse K virus, mouse leukemia virus, mouse mammary tumor virus, mouse minute virus, mouse pneumonia virus, mouse poliomyelitis virus, mouse polyomavirus, mouse sarcoma virus, mousepox virus, Mozambique virus, Mucambo virus, mucosal disease virus, mumps virus, murid betaherpesvirus 1, murid cytomegalovirus 2, murine cytomegalovirus group, murine encephalomyelitis virus, murine hepatitis virus, murine leukemia virus, murine nodule inducing virus, murine polyomavirus, murine sarcoma virus, Muromegalovirus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, myxoma virus, Myxovirus, Myxovirus multiforme, Myxovirus parotitidis, Nairobi sheep disease virus, Nairovirus, Nanirnavirus, Nariva virus, Ndumo virus, Neethling virus, Nelson Bay virus, neurotropic virus, New World Arenavirus, newborn pneumonitis virus, Newcastle disease virus, Nipah virus, noncytopathogenic virus, Norwalk virus, nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), nipple neck virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, Ockelbo virus, oncogenic virus, oncogenic viruslike particle, oncornavirus, Orbivirus, Orf virus, Oropouche virus, Orthohepadnavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Orthopoxvirus, Orthoreovirus, Orungo, ovine papillomavirus, ovine catarrhal fever virus, owl monkey herpesvirus, Palyam virus, Papillomavirus, Papillomavirus sylvilagi, Papovavirus, parainfluenza virus, parainfluenza virus type 1, parainfluenza virus type 2, parainfluenza virus type 3, parainfluenza virus type 4, Paramyxovirus, Parapoxvirus, paravaccinia virus, Parvovirus, Parvovirus B19, parvovirus group, Pestivirus, Phlebovirus, phocine distemper virus, Picodnavirus, Picornavirus, pig cytomegalovirus-pigeonpox virus, Piry virus, Pixuna virus, pneumonia virus of mice, Pneumovirus, poliomyelitis virus, poliovirus, Polydnavirus, polyhedral virus, polyoma virus, Polyomavirus, Polyomavirus bovis, Polyomavirus cercopitheci, Polyomavirus hominis 2, Polyomavirus maccacae 1, Polyomavirus muris 1, Polyomavirus muris 2, Polyomavirus papionis 1, Polyomavirus papionis 2, Polyomavirus sylvilagi, Pongine herpesvirus 1, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus, porcine parvovirus, porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus, porcine type C virus, pox virus, poxvirus, poxvirus variolae, Prospect Hill virus, Provirus, pseudocowpox virus, pseudorabies virus, psittacinepox virus, quailpox virus, rabbit fibroma virus, rabbit kidney vaculolating virus, rabbit papillomavirus, rabies virus, raccoon parvovirus, raccoonpox virus, Ranikhet virus, rat cytomegalovirus, rat parvovirus, rat virus, Rauscher's virus, recombinant vaccinia virus, recombinant virus, reovirus, reovirus 1, reovirus 2, reovirus 3, reptilian type C virus, respiratory infection virus, respiratory syncytial virus, respiratory virus, reticuloendotheliosis virus, Rhabdovirus, Rhabdovirus carpia, Rhadinovirus, Rhinovirus, Rhizidiovirus, Rift Valley fever virus, Riley's virus, rinderpest virus, RNA tumor virus, Ross River virus, Rotavirus, rougeole virus, Rous sarcoma virus, rubella virus, rubeola virus, Rubivirus, Russian autumn encephalitis virus, SA 11 simian virus, SA2 virus, Sabia virus, Sagiyama virus, Saimirine herpesvirus 1, salivary gland virus, sandfly fever virus group, Sandjimba virus, SARS virus, SDAV (sialodacryoadenitis virus), sealpox virus, Semliki Forest Virus, Seoul virus, sheeppox virus, Shope fibroma virus, Shope papilloma virus, simian foamy virus, simian hepatitis A virus, simian human immunodeficiency virus, simian immunodeficiency virus, simian parainfluenza virus, simian T cell lymphotrophic virus, simian virus, simian virus 40, Simplexvirus, Sin Nombre virus, Sindbis virus, smallpox virus, South American hemorrhagic fever viruses, sparrowpox virus, Spumavirus, squirrel fibroma virus, squirrel monkey retrovirus, SSV 1 virus group, STLV (simian T lymphotropic virus) type I, STLV (simian T lymphotropic virus) type II, STLV (simian T lymphotropic virus) type III, stomatitis papulosa virus, submaxillary virus, suid alphaherpesvirus 1, suid herpesvirus 2, Suipoxvirus, swamp fever virus, swinepox virus, Swiss mouse leukemia virus, TAC virus, Tacaribe complex virus, Tacaribe virus, Tanapox virus, Taterapox virus, Tench reovirus, Theiler's encephalomyelitis virus, Theiler's virus, Thogoto virus, Thottapalayam virus, Tick borne encephalitis virus, Tioman virus, Togavirus, Torovirus, tumor virus, Tupaia virus, turkey rhinotracheitis virus, turkeypox virus, type C retroviruses, type D oncovirus, type D retrovirus group, ulcerative disease rhabdovirus, Una virus, Uukuniemi virus group, vaccinia virus, vacuolating virus, varicella zoster virus, Varicellovirus, Varicola virus, variola major virus, variola virus, Vasin Gishu disease virus, VEE virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, Vesiculovirus, Vilyuisk virus, viper retrovirus, viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus, Visna Maedi virus, Visna virus, volepox virus, VSV (vesicular stomatitis virus), Wallal virus, Warrego virus, wart virus, WEE virus, West Nile virus, western equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalomyelitis virus, Whataroa virus, Winter Vomiting Virus, woodchuck hepatitis B virus, woolly monkey sarcoma virus, wound tumor virus, WRSV virus, Yaba monkey tumor virus, Yaba virus, Yatapoxvirus, yellow fever virus, and the Yug Bogdanovac virus. In one embodiment an infectome will be produced for each virus that includes an inventory of the host cellular genes involved in virus infection during a specific phase of viral infection, such cellular entry or the replication cycle.

For some viruses a great deal of progress has been made in the elucidation of the steps involved during infection of host cells, and any of these steps may be targeted using peptidomimetic macrocycles. For example, experiments initiated in the early 1980s showed that influenza virus follows a stepwise, endocytic entry program with elements shared with other viruses such as alpha- and rhabdoviruses (Marsh and Helenius 1989; Whittaker 2006). The steps include: 1) Initial attachment to sialic acid containing glycoconjugates receptors on the cell surface; 2) signaling induced by the virus particle; 3) endocytosis by clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent cellular mechanism; 4) acid-induced, hemaglutinin (HA)-mediated penetration from late endosomes; 5) acid-activated, M2 and matrix protein (M1) dependent uncoating of the capsid; and, 6) intra-cytosolic transport and nuclear import of vRNPs. These steps depend on assistance from the host cell in the form of sorting receptors, vesicle formation machinery, kinase-mediated regulation, organelle acidification, and, most likely, activities of the cytoskeleton.

Influenza attachment to the cells surface occurs via binding of the HA1 subunit to cell surface glycoproteins and glycolipids that carry oligosaccharide moieties with terminal sialic acid residues (Skehel and Wiley 2000). The linkage by which the sialic acid is connected to the next saccharide contributes to species specificity. Avian strains including H5N1 prefer an a-(2,3)-link and human strains a-(2,6)-link (Matrosovich 2006). In epithelial cells, binding occurs preferentially to microvilli on the apical surface, and endocytosis occurs at base of these extensions (Matlin 1982). Whether receptor binding induces signals that prepare the cell for the invasion is not yet known, but it is likely because activation of protein kinase C and synthesis of phopshatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI3P) are required for efficient entry (Sieczkarski et al., 2003; Whittaker 2006).

Endocytic internalization occurs within a few minutes after binding (Matlin 1982; Yoshimura and Ohnishi 1984). In tissue culture cells influenza virus makes use of three different types of cellular processes; 1) preexisting clathrin coated pits, 2) virus-induced clathrin coated pits, and 3) endocytosis in vesicles without visible coat (Matlin 1982; Sieczkarski and Whittaker 2002; Rust et al., 2004). Video microscopy using fluorescent viruses showed the virus particles undergoing actin-mediated rapid motion in the cell periphery followed by minus end-directed, microtubule-mediated transport to the perinuclear area of the cell. Live cell imaging indicated that the virus particles first entered a subpopulation of mobile, peripheral early endosomes that carry them deeper into the cytoplasm before penetration takes place (Lakadamyali et al., 2003; Rust et al., 2004). The endocytotic process is regulated by protein and lipid kinases, the proteasome, as well as by Rabs and ubiquitin-dependent sorting factors (Khor et al., 2003; Whittaker 2006).

The membrane penetration step is mediated by low pH-mediated activation of the trimeric, metastable HA, and the conversion of this Type I viral fusion protein to a membrane fusion competent conformation (Maeda et al., 1981; White et al., 1982). This occurs about 16 min after internalization, and the pH threshold varies between strains in the 5.0-5.6 range. The target membrane is the limiting membrane of intermediate or late endosomes. The mechanism of fusion has been extensively studied (Kielian and Rey 2006). Further it was observed that fusion itself does not seem to require any host cell components except a lipid bilayer membrane and a functional acidification system (Maeda et al., 1981; White et al., 1982). The penetration step is inhibited by agents such as lysosomotropic weak bases, carboxylic ionophores, and proton pump inhibitors (Matlin 1982; Whittaker 2006).

To allow nuclear import of the incoming vRNPs, the capsid has to be disassembled. This step involves acidification of the viral interior through the amantadine-sensitive M2-channels causes dissociation of M1 from the vRNPs (Bukrinskaya et al., 1982; Martin and Helenius 1991; Pinto et al., 1992). Transport of the individual vRNPs to the nuclear pore complexes and transfer into the nucleus depends on cellular nuclear transport receptors (O'Neill et al., 1995; Cros et al., 2005). Replication of the viral RNAs (synthesis of positive and negative strands), and transcription occurs in complexes tightly associated with the chromatin in the nucleus. It is evident that, although many of the steps are catalyzed by the viral polymerase, cellular factors are involved including RNA polymerase activating factors, a chaperone HSP90, hCLE, and a human splicing factor UAP56. Viral gene expression is subject to complex cellular control at the transcriptional level, a control system dependent on cellular kinases (Whittaker 2006).

The final assembly of an influenza particle occurs during a budding process at the plasma membrane. In epithelial cells, budding occurs at the apical membrane domain only (Rodriguez-Boulan 1983). First, the progeny vRNPs are transported within the nucleoplasm to the nuclear envelope, then from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and finally they accumulate in the cell periphery. Exit from the nucleus is dependent on viral protein NEP and M1, and a variety of cellular proteins including CRM1 (a nuclear export receptor), caspases, and possibly some nuclear protein chaperones. Phosphorylation plays a role in nuclear export by regulating M1 and NEP synthesis, and also through the MAPK/ERK system (Bui et al., 1996; Ludwig 2006). G protein and protein kinase signaling is involved in influenza virus budding from infected host cells (Hui E. and Nayak D, 2002).

The three membrane proteins of the virus are synthesized, folded and assembled into oligomers in the ER (Doms et al., 1993). They pass through the Golgi complex; undergo maturation through modification of their carbohydrate moieties and proteolytic cleavage. After reaching the plasma membrane they associate with M1 and the vRNPs in a budding process that results in the inclusion of all eight vRNPs and exclusion of most host cell components except lipids.

Influenza infection is associated with activation of several signaling cascades including the MAPK pathway (ERK, JNK, p38 and BMK-1/ERK5), the IkB/NF-kB signaling module, the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade, and programmed cell death (Ludwig 2006). These result in a variety of effects that limit the progress of infection such as transcriptional activation of IFNb, apoptotic cell death, and a block in virus escape of from late endosomes (Ludwig 2006).

EXAMPLES Example 1

Peptidomimetic macrocycles were synthesized, purified and analyzed as previously described (Walensky et al., (2004) Science 305:1466-70; Walensky et al., (2006) Mol Cell 24:199-210; Bernal et al., (2007) J. Am Chem Soc. 9129, 2456-2457) and as indicated below. The macrocycles used in this study are shown in Table 1. The corresponding uncrosslinked polypeptides represent the natural counterparts of the peptidomimetic macrocycles.

α,α-disubstituted non-natural amino acids containing olefinic side chains were synthesized according to Williams et al., (1991) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113:9276; Schafmeister et al., (2000) J. Am. Chem Soc. 122:5891 and Verdine et al., PCT WO 2008/121767. Peptidomimetic macrocycles were designed by replacing two or more naturally occurring amino acids with the corresponding synthetic amino acids. Substitutions were made at the i and i+3, i and i+4, i and i+6, and i and i+7 positions. Macrocycles were generated by solid phase peptide synthesis followed by olefin metathesis-based crosslinking of the synthetic amino acids via their olefin-containing side chains.

The non-natural amino acids (R and S enantiomers of the 5-carbon olefinic amino acid and the S enantiomer of the 8-carbon olefinic amino acid) were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (Varian Mercury 400) and mass spectrometry (Micromass LCT). Peptide synthesis was performed manually or on an automated peptide synthesizer (Applied Biosystems, model 433A), using solid phase conditions, rink amide AM resin (Novabiochem), and Fmoc main-chain protecting group chemistry. For the coupling of natural Fmoc-protected amino acids (Novabiochem), 10 equivalents of amino acid and a 1:1:2 molar ratio of coupling reagents HBTU/HOBt (Novabiochem)/DIEA were employed. Non-natural amino acids (4 equiv) were coupled with a 1:1:2 molar ratio of HATU (Applied Biosystems)/HOBt/DIEA. Olefin metathesis was performed in the solid phase using 10 mM Grubbs catalyst (Blackewell et al., 1994) (Strem Chemicals) dissolved in degassed dichloromethane and reacted for 2 hours at room temperature. Isolation of metathesized compounds was achieved by trifluoroacetic acid-mediated deprotection and cleavage, ether precipitation to yield the crude product, and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Varian ProStar) on a reverse phase C18 column (Varian) to yield the pure compounds. Chemical composition of the pure products was confirmed by LC/MS mass spectrometry (Micromass LCT interfaced with Agilent 1100 HPLC system) and amino acid analysis (Applied Biosystems, model 420A).

The synthesized peptides include a norleucine replacement for methionine to avoid issues with unwanted thioether oxidation. In several peptides, the proline residue is replaced with a 2-aminoisobutyric acid residue (Aib) to increase helicity, and the effect of Glu-to-Arg substitution on cell penetrability was also explored. The N-termini of the exemplary synthetic peptides were acetylated, while the C-termini were amidated. Table 1 shows non-limiting list of peptidomimetic macrocycles prepared.

Example 2: Manufacture of Peptidomimetic Macrocycle

Synthesis of Peptide on Resin

The initial amino acid of the C-terminus was attached to a polyethylene glycol-grafted polystyrene-based Fmoc-Rink resin (Amphispheres 40 RAM), which was prepared for coupling with the first amino acid by treatment with piperidine in DMF. The subsequent amino acids were coupled individually until the full linear sequence was elaborated. The α-amino group of each amino acid was protected by a 9H-fluoren-9-ylmethoxycarbonyl group (Fmoc) during the coupling of the carboxylic acid of the amino acid with the free amino terminus of the peptide attached to the resin. To avoid any side reactions during the coupling steps performed in DMF, the reactive side-chains of amino acids also carry acid-labile protecting groups that effectively mask the reactive groups until treatment of the resin with acid during the cleavage of the peptide from the solid support. After completion of each coupling step the Fmoc group of the just-attached amino acid was removed with piperidine and the resin was thoroughly washed to prepare for the coupling of the subsequent Fmoc-amino acid derivative. Diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC) with 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) or (7-azabenzotriazol-1-yloxy) tripyrrolidino-phosphonium hexafluorophosphate (PyAOP) were used as coupling agents to create the amide bond between the free amino terminus of the resin-bound protected peptide and the carboxylic acid of the Fmoc-amino acid.

The presence or absence of available amino groups was tested with the Kaiser Ninhydrin Test. After each piperidine treatment a small sample of the resin-bound peptide was removed to verify the availability of free amino groups. Additionally, a small sample of the resin-bound peptide was also removed after each Fmoc-amino acid coupling step to verify that no amino groups were still available to react with the next amino acid. In case of a positive test result after coupling (presence of free amino groups), the coupling reaction was repeated. If there were still available amino groups after repeat coupling, the resin-bound peptide was treated with acetic anhydride in the presence of DIPEA in DMF to block the remaining free amine from further reaction with subsequent Fmoc-amino acids. After release from the resin, the shorter blocked peptides were more readily removed from the complete peptide than a peptide containing a deletion.

Cyclization (Metathesis)

Cyclization was carried out in Toluene with the peptide on the resin resulting in a cross-link of terminal olefin moieties with the application of Hoveyda-Grubbs' 2^(nd) generation catalyst. This cyclization was performed at room temperature with stepwise addition of catalyst (5-10% total amount) over period of 5-7 days. Progress of the cyclization was monitored by TFA cleavage of small sample of peptide resin and LC-MS analysis of cleaved peptide. After cyclization was completed resin was washed extensively and treated with DMSO/DCM mixture (1:1, v/v) for 16 hours. Following extensive washes resin was dried under vacuum before TFA cleavage. Treatment of the resin with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) removes side chain protecting groups and releases the peptide from the resin as the C-terminal primary amide. Water and triisopropylsilane were added to the TFA cleavage solution to quench reactive side products that result from the removal of side chain protecting groups.

Purification

Purification was performed by preparative reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) in three sequential steps on phenyl-hexyl-derivatized silica as purification media. In the first step, the peptide was eluted from the column using a gradient of acetonitrile in 0.1% TFA in water; in the second step, an acetonitrile gradient of acetonitrile in 0.1 M triethylamine/phosphoric acid in water was used.

Fractions from each step were tested for peptide purity using an in-process analytical HPLC method. Pooled fractions were lyophilized and stored until the entire batch has been purified.

Desalting, Reconstitution and Lyophilization

The purified product from the second reverse-phase HPLC purification step was converted to the free carboxylic acid (side chain of Glu) on phenyl-hexyl-derivatized silica and eluted using an acetonitrile gradient in 0.1% aqueous TFA. The eluate was clarified by filtration through a 0.2 μm membrane filter and then lyophilized to homogeneity.

Packaging

Following lyophilization final peptide was packaged into Type III amber glass bottles in a HEPA-filtered environment. The bottles were sealed with Teflon®-lined polypropylene screw caps. To ensure that no moisture can enter the containers, the screw cap bottle interface was additionally wrapped with PTFE tape.

Example 3: Pd-Catalyzed Cross Coupling of Terminal Alkynes to Diynes

The fully protected resin-bound peptides were synthesized on a PEG-PS resin (loading 0.4 mmol/g) on a 0.2 mmol scale. Deprotection of the temporary Fmoc group was achieved by 3×10 min treatments of the resin bound peptide with 20% (v/v) piperidine in DMF. After washing with NMP (3×), dichloromethane (3×) and NMP (3×), coupling of each successive amino acid was achieved with 1×120 min incubation with the appropriate preactivated Fmoc-amino acid derivative. All protected amino acids (0.8 mmol) were dissolved in NMP and activated with HCTU (0.8 mmol) and DIEA (1.6 mmol) prior to transfer of the coupling solution to the deprotected resin-bound peptide. α-methylated amino acids and amino acids immediately followed α-methylated ones were coupled in the similar way with the use of PyAOP instead HCTU as a coupling agent. After all couplings were completed, the resin was washed in preparation for the next deprotection/coupling cycle. Acetylation of the amino terminus was carried out in the presence of acetic anhydride/DIEA in NMP. The LC-MS analysis of a cleaved and deprotected sample obtained from an aliquot of the fully assembled resin-bound peptide was accomplished in order to verifying the completion of each coupling.

In a typical example, 1,2-dichloroethane (6 ml) and triethylamine (3 ml) were added to the peptide resin (0.2 mmol) in a 40 mL glass vial and shaken for 60 minutes. Copper iodide (0.008 g, 0.04 mmol) was added to the resin slurry followed by 10 min later with Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (0.028 g, 0.04 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (0.031 g, 0.12 mmol). The resulting reaction mixture was mechanically shaken 16 hours at 50° C. while open to atmosphere. The diyne-cyclized resin-bound peptides were deprotected and cleaved from the solid support by treatment with TFA/H₂O/TIS (95/5/5 v/v) for 2.5 hours at room temperature. After filtration of the resin the TFA solution was precipitated in cold diethyl ether and centrifuged to yield the desired product as a solid. The crude product was purified by preparative HPLC.

Example 4: Stability

The ex vivo serum stability of several peptidomimetic macrocycles will be tested by incubating them at 5000 ng/mL (2 μM at MW=2500) with fresh human serum at 37° C. and taking samples at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 24 hours. At each time point the samples will be flash-frozen until analysis in duplicate, then extracted by transferring 100 μL of sera to 2 ml centrifuge tubes followed by the addition of 10 μL of 50% formic acid and 500 μL acetonitrile and centrifugation at 14,000 RPM for 10 min at 4±2° C. After protein precipitation, the supernatants will be transferred to fresh 2 ml tubes and evaporated on Turbovap under N₂ at <10 psi, 37° C. The samples will be reconstituted in 100 μL of 50:50 acetonitrile/water and quantified by LC-MS/MS analysis. The response for each compound will be normalized to estimate a percent decrease in concentration versus time.

Example 5: PK Properties

Several peptidomimetic macrocycles will be tested for PK properties in single IV dose in rats. The in-life portion of the study will be conducted at ViviSource Laboratories (Waltham, Mass.). A single intravenous dose of 3 mg/kg Stapled Peptide formulated in water continuing 5% PEG-400 and 2% Dextrose will be administered to a pair of jugular vein-cannulated male Sprague-Dawley rats. The IV dose that is mostly well-tolerated and whether animals appear healthy within the study duration will be determined Blood samples will be collected over thirteen sampling times up to 24 hours and the plasma samples will be shipped on dry ice to Tandem Bioanalytical Facilities, Inc. (Woburn, Mass.) for the analytical phase of the study.

Quantification in plasma samples will be preceded by the preparation of sample extracts by combining 50 μL of ammonium hydroxide (14.5 M ammonia), 1 mL of a 1:1 acetonitrile/methanol solution, and 50 μL of internal standard with 50 μL of each plasma sample. The mixtures will be centrifuged to separate liquid supernatant from solid precipitate and supernatants will be dried at 40° C. under flowing nitrogen gas. The dried sample extracts will be reconstituted in 50 μL of a 1:1 water/methanol solution that contained 0.1% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid. Plasma sample extracts will be analyzed by a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method that utilized an API 5000 (Applied Biosystems) instrument operated in positive ionization mode at a temperature of 500° C. using a multiple reaction monitoring mode of detection (MRM). The analytical column for liquid chromatography will be a Varian Metasil C18, 50 mm×2 mm and mobile phases A (0.1% formic acid in water) and B (0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile) will be pumped at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min. Quantification in plasma extracts will be made by linear regression analysis employing a pure reference standard Stapled Peptide diluted in normal rat plasma to prepare eight calibration standards over the working concentration range of 20-10,000 ng/ml. The calibration standards will be extracted in identical fashion as sample extracts and analyzed before and after the sample extracts.

Pharmacokinetic parameters will be calculated using a non-compartmental model using the PK Functions add-in for Microsoft Excel. The terminal elimination half-life will be calculated as ln(2)/(λz), where the rate constant (λz) will be calculated as −1 times the estimated slope of the log-concentration versus time data over 2-12 hours. AUC values (hr*ng/ml) will be calculated by statistical moment and linear trapezoidal approximation methods over time points of 0-24 hours and 24 hour concentration values will be divided by (λz) was added in order to extrapolate AUMC and AUC values to infinite time. Total body clearance (per kg body weight) will be calculated as dose divided by AUC. The volume of distribution at steady state (Vss) will be calculated as the product of clearance and mean residence time (MRT=AUC/AUMC).

An experiment will be also performed to compare different modes of administration. Subcutaneous injection of peptidomimetic macrocycle will be performed and compared to intravenous administration. Two groups of two animals each will be injected subcutaneously with a 3 mg/kg dose. Plasma will be collected at regular time points (e.g., 5, 20 minutes; 1, 2, 4, 8 12, and 48 hours) and the samples will be analyzed as indicated above.

Example 6—In Vitro Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication

An influenza antiviral evaluation assay was performed to examine the effects of peptidomimetic macrocycles at designated dose-response concentrations. See also Noah, J. W., W. Severson, D. L. Noah, L. Rasmussen, E. L. White, and C. B. Jonsson, Antiviral Res, 2007. 73(1): p. 50-9. Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were used in the assay to test the efficacy of the compounds in preventing the cytopathic effect (CPE) induced by influenza infection. Either Ribavirin or Tamiflu were included in each run as a positive control compound. Subconfluent cultures of MDCK cells were plated into 96-well plates for the analysis of cell viability (cell cytotoxicity (CC)) and antiviral activity (CPE). Drugs were added to the cells 24 hours later. At a designated time, the CPE wells received 100 tissue culture infectious doses (100 TCID₅₀s) of titered influenza virus. 72 hours later the cell viability was determined. The effective compound concentrations which reduced viral-induced CPE by 25% (IC₂₅), 50% (IC₅₀), and 90% (IC₉₀) were calculated by regression analysis with semi-log curve fitting. Cell viability will be assessed using CellTiter-Glo (Promega). The toxic concentration of drug that reduced cell numbers by 50% and 90% (TC₅₀ and TC₉₀, respectively) were calculated as well. Selectivity (therapeutic) indices (SI=TC/IC) were also calculated. Cells were also used in a virus yield reduction (VYR) assay to determine antiviral efficacy of the compounds in reducing viral titers. Cells were plated and infected as described above and then incubated. Supernatants were then be harvested and viral titers were determined by plaque assay, TCID, or immunocytochemistry. Antiviral efficacy was calculated based on viral titer reduction compared to an untreated virus control and used to calculate IC₅₀. Results of the assays are shown below in Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, and Table 8.

TABLE 5 Cytopathic effect/toxicity (Visual) EC₅₀ (μM) EC₅₀ (μM) SP# H₁N₁ California/07/2009 H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Ribavirin ++++ ++++ 1 + ++ 2 + +++ 3 + ++ 4 + ++ 5 ++ +++ 6 +++ ++ 7 +++ ++ 8 +++ ++ 9 +++ ++ 10 ++ ++ 11 ++++ +++ 12 ++++ +++ 13 ++ + 14 ++++ ++ 15 ++ ++ 16 +++ ++ 17 ++ +++ 18 ++++ ++ 19 ++++ ++++ 20 +++ ++++ 21 +++++ +++++ 22 ++++ +++++ 23 ++++ ++++ 24 ++++ ++++ 25 +++++ +++++ 26 +++++ +++ 27 +++++ +++++ + = >50 μM; ++ = >25-50 μM; +++ = >10-25 μM; ++++ = >1.5-10 μM; +++++ = ≤1.5 μM

TABLE 6 Cytopathic effect/toxicity (Neutral red) EC₅₀ (μM) EC₅₀ (μM) SP# H₁N₁ California/07/2009 H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Ribavirin +++ +++ 1 ++ ++ 2 + ++ 3 + + 4 + ++ 5 ++ +++ 6 +++ ++ 7 +++ ++ 8 +++ ++ 9 +++ ++ 10 ++ ++ 11 ++++ +++ 12 ++++ +++ 13 ++ + 14 ++++ ++ 15 ++ ++ 16 +++ ++ 17 ++ +++ 18 ++++ ++ 19 ++++ ++++ 20 ++ ++++ 21 ++++ ++++ 22 ++++ +++++ 23 ++++ ++++ 24 ++++ ++++ 25 +++++ +++++ 26 ++++ +++ 27 +++++ ++++ + = >50 μM; ++ = >25-50 μM; +++ = >10-25 μM; ++++ = >1.5-10 μM; +++++ = ≤1.5 μM

As shown in Table 7, all peptides have a CC₅₀>100 μM against both H₁N₁ California/07/2009 and H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 strains.

TABLE 7 Cell cytotoxicity (CC) CC₅₀ (μM) CC₅₀ (μM) SP# H₁N₁ California/07/2009 H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Ribavirin + + 1 + + 2 + + 3 + + 4 + + 5 + + 6 + + 7 + + 8 + + 9 + + 10 + + 11 + + 12 + + 13 + + 14 + + 15 + + 16 + + 17 + + 18 + + 19 + + 20 + + 21 + + 22 + + 23 + + 24 + + 25 + + 26 + + 27 + + + = >100 μM

As shown in Table 8, peptide SP-6 showed broad antiviral activity.

TABLE 8 Cytopathic effect/toxicity Influenza Strain EC₅₀**** (μM) H₁N₁ A/California/07/2009 (pandemic) ND H₁N₁ A/California/07/2009* ++ H₁N₁ A/California/07/2009** ++++ H₁N₁ A/HK/2369/09 (oseltamivir-resistant) ND H₁N₁ A/PR/8/34 +++ H₁N₁ A/Solomon Island/03/2006** ++++ H₁N₁ A/Solomon Island/03/2006*** +++++ H₁N₁ A/Brisbane/59/2007** ++++ H₁N₁ A/Brisbane/59/2007*** ++++ H₃N₂ A/Perth/16/2009* ++++ H₃N₂ A/Perth/16/2009** ++++ H₅N₁ A/Duck/MN/1525/81* +++ H₅N₁ A/Duck/MN/1525/81** ++++ H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003** + H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013** + Influenza B Florida/04/2006** +++ Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008** ++++ *Assay conducted November 2013 **Assay conducted January 2014 ***Assay conducted April 2014 ****Cytopathic effect by Neutral Red

Example 6—In Vitro Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication

An influenza antiviral evaluation assay was performed to examine the effects of peptidomimetic macrocycles at designated dose-response concentrations against various viral strains. See also Noah, J. W., W. Severson, D. L. Noah, L. Rasmussen, E. L. White, and C. B. Jonsson, Antiviral Res, 2007. 73(1): p. 50-9. Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were used in the assay to test the efficacy of the compounds in suppressing the cytopathic effect (CPE) induced by influenza infection. Ribavirin was included in each run as a positive control compound. Subconfluent cultures of MDCK cells were plated into 96-well plates to analyze cell viability (cell cytotoxicity (CC)) and antiviral activity (CPE). Drugs dissolved in DMSO were added to the cells after 24 hours.

At a designated time, the CPE wells also received 100 tissue culture infectious doses (100 TCID₅₀s) of titered influenza virus. 72 hours later, the cell viability was determined using visual and neutral red dye uptake methods. The effective compound concentrations that reduced viral replication by 50% (EC₅₀) and 90% (EC₉₀) were calculated by regression analysis with semi-log curve fitting. Cell viability was assessed using CellTiter-Glo™ (Promega). The compound concentrations that reduced cell viability by 50% (CC₅₀) and selectivity (therapeutic) indices (SI₅₀=CC₅₀/EC₅₀; SI₉₀=CC₉₀/EC₉₀) were also calculated. Cells were also used in a virus yield reduction (VYR) assay using quantitative polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) to determine antiviral efficacy of the compounds in reducing viral titers. Cells were plated and infected as described above and then incubated. The supernatants were then harvested, and viral titers were determined using a plaque assay, TCID, or immunocytochemistry. Antiviral efficacy levels were calculated based on viral titer reductions compared to an untreated virus control and used to calculate EC₅₀ values.

Table 9 details the concentration of the control (ribavirin), concentration of the peptidomimetic macrocycles SP 1-27, screened viruses, viral strains used for the assays, and the corresponding EC₅₀, EC₉₀, CC₅₀, SI₅₀ and SI₉₀ values. The data are presented in chronological order. The results show that the peptidomimetic macrocycles of the invention have sub-micromolar cellular activity against the viral strains tested.

TABLE 9 SP# Virus screened Viral Strain Drug Assay EC₅₀ EC₉₀ CC₅₀ SI₅₀ SI₉₀ Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 10 >320 >32 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 28 >100 >3.6 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 52 >100 >1.9 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 27 >100 >3.7 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 31 >100 >3.2 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 9 >320 >36 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 12 >100 >8.3 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 12 >100 >8.3 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 3.8 >100 >26 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 5.2 >100 >19 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 9.6 >320 >33 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual 4 >100 >25 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 6.3 >100 >16 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual 12 >100 >8.3 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 15 >100 >6.7 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Visual 3.5 >320 >91 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Neutral Red 5 >320 >64 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Visual 1.1 >100 >91 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Neutral Red 3 >100 >33 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Visual 0.83 >100 >120 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./03/2006 Neutral Red 5.2 >100 >19 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual 7.3 >320 >44 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 7.2 >320 >44 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual 6 >100 >17 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 5.5 >100 >18 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual 5.7 >100 >18 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 5.6 >100 >18 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 5.5 >320 >58 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual >65 65 0 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 18 65 3.6 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual >36 36 0 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.4 36 8.2 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 5.5 >320 >58 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 28 >100 >3.6 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 4.1 >100 >24 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 22 >100 >4.5 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 3.8 >100 >26 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual 9 >320 >35 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual 70 >100 >1.4 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 6.4 >100 >16 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Visual >70 70 0 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Duck/MN/1525/81 Neutral Red 4.6 70 15 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual 43 >1000 >23 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red 39 >1000 >26 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >100 >100 0 AP1 Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₅N₁ Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 Ribavirin Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 15 >1000 >67 Ribavirin Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 18 >1000 >56 AP1 Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual >100 >100 0 AP1 Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₇H₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 Ribavirin Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Visual 3.4 >320 >94 Ribavirin Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Neutral Red 4.8 >320 >67 AP1 Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Visual 21 >100 >4.8 AP1 Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Neutral Red 11 86 7.8 SP6 Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Visual 14 >100 >7.1 SP6 Influenza B Florida/04/2006 Neutral Red 18 98 5.4 Ribavirin Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Visual 8.4 >320 >38 Ribavirin Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 AP1 Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Visual 2.4 >100 >42 AP1 Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Neutral Red 6.9 >100 >14 SP6 Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Visual 3.8 >100 >26 SP6 Influenza B Brisbane/60/2008 Neutral Red 7.1 >100 >14 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual 5.2 >320 >61 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual >100 >100 0 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 17 >100 >5.9 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Visual >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Brisbane/59/2007 Neutral Red 5.5 >100 >18 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Neutral Red 9.6 >320 >33 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Visual >100 >100 0 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Visual 27 >100 >3.7 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/04/2009-M Neutral Red 30 >100 >3.3 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Visual 4.1 >320 >78 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Neutral Red 1.9 >320 >170 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Visual 3.7 >100 >27 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Neutral Red 1.8 >100 >56 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Visual 1.2 >100 >83 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006 Neutral Red 0.65 >100 >150 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 8.9 >320 >36 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 3.2 >100 >31 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 3.1 >100 >32 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 3.2 >100 >31 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 3.1 >100 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Neutral Red 9.8 >320 >33 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Visual 19 >100 >5.3 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Neutral Red 15 >100 >6.7 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Visual 24 >100 >4.2 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Victoria/3/75-M Neutral Red 24 >100 >4.2 Ribavirin Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Neutral Red 9.3 >320 >34 AP1 Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Visual 36 >100 >2.8 AP1 Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Neutral Red 30 >100 >3.3 SP6 Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Visual 42 >100 >2.4 SP6 Influenza B Sichuan/379/99-M Neutral Red 27 >100 >3.7 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo 2.81 11.78 >100 >36 >8 Brisbane/10/2007 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- 1.18 7.63 >100 >85 >13 Brisbane/10/2007 Glo AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/10/2007 AP1 Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- <0.80 >100 >100 125 1 Brisbane/10/2007 Glo SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/10/2007 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/10/2007 Glo Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo 6.53 16.21 >100 >15 >6 California/7/2009 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- 8.36 17.66 >100 >12 >6 California/7/2009 Glo AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 California/7/2009 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 California/7/2009 Glo SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 California/7/2009 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza A/ qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 California/7/2009 Glo Ribavirin Influenza B Influenza B/ CellTiter-Glo 66.17 >100 >100 >2 1 Brisbane/60/2008 Ribavirin Influenza B Influenza B/ qPCR/CellTiter- <0.8 2.00 >100 >125 >50 Brisbane/60/2008 Glo AP1 Influenza B Influenza B/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/60/2008 AP1 Influenza B Influenza B/ qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/60/2008 Glo SP6 Influenza B Influenza B/ CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/60/2008 SP6 Influenza B Influenza B/ qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 Brisbane/60/2008 Glo Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza CellTiter-Glo 14.64 >100 >100 >1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza qPCR/CellTiter- 1.20 >100 >100 >1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 Glo AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 AP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 Glo SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza CellTiter-Glo >100 >100 >100 1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ Influenza qPCR/CellTiter- >100 >100 >100 1 1 A/Texas/4/2009 Glo Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 1.7 >320 >190 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 11 >320 >29 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 12 >100 >8.3 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 23 >100 >4.3 SP7 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 11 >100 >9.1 SP7 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 11 >100 >9.1 SP8 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 19 >100 >5.3 SP8 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 19 >100 >5.3 SP9 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 15 >100 >6.7 SP9 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 22 >100 >4.5 SP10 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP10 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 35 >100 >2.9 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 2.4 >100 >42 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.1 >100 >24 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 3.2 >100 >31 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 8 >100 >12 SP13 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP13 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 31 >100 >3.2 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 3.2 >100 >31 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.1 >100 >16 SP15 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP15 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 28 >100 >3.6 SP16 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 18 >100 >5.6 SP16 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 19 >100 >5.3 SP17 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 29 >100 >3.4 SP17 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 30 >100 >3.3 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 6.8 >100 >15 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.5 >100 >22 SP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 52 >100 >1.9 SP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 36 >100 >2.8 SP2 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 68 >100 >1.5 SP2 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 51 >100 >2 SP3 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual >100 >100 0 SP3 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP4 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual >100 >100 0 SP4 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP5 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 26 >100 >3.8 SP5 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 34 >100 >2.9 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 11 >320 >27 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 28 >100 >3.6 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 28 >100 >3.6 SP7 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP7 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 30 >100 >3.3 SP8 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 42 >100 >2.4 SP8 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 38 >100 >2.6 SP9 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 40 >100 >2.5 SP9 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 41 >100 >2.4 SP10 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP10 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 32 >100 >3.1 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 21 >100 >4.8 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 24 >100 >4.2 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 19 >100 >5.3 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 24 >100 >4.2 SP13 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual >100 >100 0 SP13 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 30 >100 >3.3 SP15 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP15 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 31 >100 >3.2 SP16 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP16 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 31 >100 >3.2 SP17 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 24 >100 >4.2 SP17 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 25 >100 >4 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 31 >100 >3.2 SP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP1 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 32 >100 >3.1 SP2 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 24 >100 >4.2 SP2 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 32 >100 >3.1 SP3 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 38 >100 >2.6 SP3 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 73 >100 >1.4 SP4 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP4 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 32 >100 >3.1 SP5 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 12 >100 >8.3 SP5 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 14 >100 >7.1 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 4.9 >320 >65 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 8.5 >320 >38 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 66 >100 >1.5 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.3 >100 >16 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 21 >100 >4.8 SP11 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 15 >100 >6.7 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 21 >100 >4.8 SP12 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.9 >100 >14 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 29 >100 >3.4 SP14 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 5.2 >100 >19 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 6.4 >100 >16 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.8 >100 >15 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 7.9 >320 >41 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 5.6 >320 >57 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 65 >100 >1.5 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 4.2 >100 >24 SP11 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 26 >100 >3.8 SP11 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 5.5 >100 >18 SP12 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 47 >100 >2.1 SP12 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 7.7 >100 >13 SP14 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red 100 >100 >1 SP14 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 6.8 >100 >15 SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 VYR/Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 33 >100 >3 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 5.7 >320 >56 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.8 >320 >47 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 5.4 >100 >19 SP6 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.9 >100 >20 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 3.2 >100 >31 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 3.8 >100 >26 SP19 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 4.1 >100 >24 SP19 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6 >100 >17 SP20 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 18 >100 >5.6 SP20 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 26 >100 >3.8 SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 1.3 >100 >77 SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.6 >100 >22 SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 1.8 >100 >56 SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 2.6 >100 >38 SP23 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 4.3 >100 >23 SP23 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 4.2 >100 >24 SP24 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 4.3 >100 >23 SP24 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 6.9 >100 >14 SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 0.57 >100 >180 SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 1.1 >100 >91 SP26 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 0.75 >100 >130 SP26 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 2.1 >100 >48 SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Visual 0.57 >100 >130 SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/2009 Neutral Red 0.44 >100 >230 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 2.4 >320 >130 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 4.6 >320 >70 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 4.3 >100 >23 SP6 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 4.6 >100 >22 SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 14 >100 >7.1 SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 22 >100 >4.5 SP19 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 5.7 >100 >18 SP19 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 4.3 >100 >23 SP20 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 4.8 >100 >21 SP20 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 3.7 >100 >27 SP21 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 0.54 >100 >190 SP21 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 2.1 >100 >48 SP22 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 0.54 >100 >190 SP22 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 0.83 >100 >120 SP23 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 5.7 >100 >18 SP23 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 4.9 >100 >20 SP24 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 2.5 >100 >40 SP24 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 3.4 >100 >29 SP25 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 0.34 >100 >290 SP25 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 0.43 >100 >230 SP26 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 14 >100 >7.1 SP26 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 23 >100 >4.3 SP27 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Visual 0.32 >100 >310 SP27 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2006 Neutral Red 1.7 >100 >59 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual 4.2 >1000 >238 Ribavirin Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red 3.6 >1000 >277 SP18 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >50 >50 0 SP18 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >50 >50 0 SP21 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual 34 >50 >1.5 SP21 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red 39 >50 >1.3 SP22 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >50 >50 0 SP22 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >50 >50 0 SP25 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >50 >50 0 SP25 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >50 >50 0 SP27 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Visual >50 >50 0 SP27 Influenza A H₅N₁ A/Hong Kong/213/2003 Neutral Red >50 >50 0 Ribavirin Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 3.2 >1000 >313 Ribavirin Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 3 >1000 >333 SP18 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual >50 >50 0 SP18 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red >50 >50 0 SP21 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 16 >50 >3.1 SP21 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 17 >50 >2.9 SP22 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 12 >50 >4.2 SP22 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 13 >50 >3.8 SP25 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 23 >50 >2.2 SP25 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 33 >50 >1.5 SP27 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Visual 18 >50 >2.8 SP27 Influenza A H₇N₉ A/Anhui/1/2013 Neutral Red 9.6 >50 >5.2 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 10 >320 >32 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 10 >320 >32 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 13 >100 >7.7 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 29 >100 >3.4 SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 4.8 >100 >21 SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 5.3 >100 >19 SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 12 >100 >8.3 SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 29 >100 >3.4 SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 3.6 >100 >28 SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 6.5 >100 >15 SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Visual 32 >100 >3.1 SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ A/Solomon Is./3/2006-M Neutral Red 75 >100 >1.3 Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 2.7 >320 >119 Red Ribavirin Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 11 >320 >29 SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 4 >100 >25 Red SP18 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 7 >100 >14 SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 9.6 >100 >10 Red SP21 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 21 >100 >4.8 SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 6.5 >100 >15 Red SP22 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 12 >100 >8 SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 8.2 >100 >12 Red SP25 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 6.6 >100 >15 SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Visual/Neutral 8 >100 >13 Red SP27 Influenza A H₁N₁ California/07/20/09 Neutral Red 8.7 >100 >11 Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral 4.4 >320 Red Ribavirin Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 5 >320 >64 >73 SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral >100 >100 0 Red SP18 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red >100 >100 0 SP21 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral 8 >100 >13 Red SP21 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 4.8 >100 >21 SP22 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral 59 >100 >1.7 Red SP22 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 51 >100 >2 SP25 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral 49 >100 >2 Red SP25 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 49 >100 >2 SP27 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Visual/Neutral 35 >100 >2.9 Red SP27 Influenza A H₃N₂ Perth/16/2009 Neutral Red 35 >100 >2.9

Example 7:—In Vivo Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication

This study evaluated the toxicity of two doses of a peptidomimetic macrocycle disclosed herein against an influenza A/CA/04/2009 (pandemic H₁N₁) virus infection in mice. In addition, antiviral activity in mice can be completed in parallel.

Animals:

Female 18-20 g BALB/c mice were obtained from Charles River Laboratories (Wilmington, Mass.) for this experiment. The mice were quarantined for 5 days before use and were maintained on Teklad Rodent Diet (Harlan Teklad) and tap water.

Virus:

Influenza A/CA/04/2009 (pandemic H₁N₁), an amantadine-resistant strain, were used as a representative of currently circulating influenza virus. Influenza A/CA/04/2009 (H₁N₁), strain designation 175190 were used. The viruses were adapted to replication in the lungs of BALB/c mice by 9 sequential passages in mice. Viruses were plaque-purified in MDCK cells and a virus stock is prepared by growth in embryonated chicken eggs and then MDCK cells.

Compound:

Peptidomimetic macrocycles were prepared in a PEG-based vehicle and then administered.

Experimental Design:

Animal numbers and study groups are described in Tables 10 and 11.

Maximum Tolerated Dose (Toxicity) Study (Table 10):

Groups of mice were treated by intravenous injection daily for 5 days with 5.0 or 10 mg/kg doses of peptidomimetic macrocycles. Five non-treated normal control mice were maintained for weight comparison. Mice were individually weighed prior to treatment and then every other day thereafter to assess the effects of treatment on weight loss through day 14 after beginning treatment.

Drug Dose-Range Finding (Efficacy) Study (Table 11):

Groups of mice were treated by intravenous injection daily for 5 days with 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg doses of peptidomimetic macrocycles. Control groups included mice treated with 10 mg/kg/day oseltamivir twice per day at 12 hour intervals), or placebo (15 mice) treated with physiological sterile saline (PSS) according to the same dosing regimen. Five non-treated normal control mice were maintained for weight comparison. For influenza virus challenge, mice were anesthetized by i.p. injection of ketamine/xylazine (50 mg/kg//5 mg/kg) prior to challenge by the intranasal route with approximately 1×10⁵ (3×LD₅₀) cell culture infectious doses (CCID₅₀) of virus per mouse in a 90 μL inoculum volume.

Mice were weighed prior to treatment and then every other day thereafter to assess the effects of treatment on ameliorating weight loss due to virus infection. All mice group were observed for morbidity and mortality through day 21 post-infection.

Statistical Analysis:

Kaplan-Meier survival curves were generated and compared by the Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test followed by pairwise comparison using the Gehan-Breslow-Wilcoxon test in Prism 5.0f (GraphPad Softw Inc.). Mean body weights were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's multiple comparison tests using Prism 5.0f.

This study determined the maximum dose of peptidomimetic macrocycles, which could be safely administered by the intravenous route to mice. Once daily treatment with each dose of peptidomimetic macrocycles at 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg/day for 5 days were evaluated for weight loss and survival.

This study can also be used to determine whether treatment with peptidomimetic macrocycles increased survival against a lethal influenza A/CA/04/2009 (pandemic H₁N₁) virus challenge in mice. Parameters to evaluate following challenge infection include: percent survivors, mean day of death determinations, and individual body weight change to measure every other day following infection.

This study can also be used to determine the antiviral activity of peptidomimetic macrocycles at two doses against an influenza A/CA/04/2009 (pandemic H₁N₁) virus infection in mice. Once daily treatment with each compound at 5.0 or 10.0 mg/kg/day for 5 days were evaluated. All mice were observed for mortality and weight loss following virus challenge with influenza virus.

Experiments demonstrated that all mice survived at the SP-6 doses tested. Change in mean body weight of mice administered SP-6 at the indicated doses is exemplified in FIG. 1.

TABLE 10 Maximum Tolerated Dose Study Design Number/ Group Treatment Cage No. Infected Compound Dosage Schedule 5 2 No SP1-SP27 10.0 mg/kg/day qd X 5 5 4 No SP1-SP27  5.0 mg/kg/day

TABLE 11 Drug Dose-Range Efficacy Study Design #/ Group Treatment Cage # Infected Compound Dosage Schedule 15 1 Yes *Placebo — qd X 5, 10 3 Yes SP1-SP27 10.0 mg/kg/day begin 4 hours 10 5 Yes SP1-SP27  5.0 mg/kg/day pre-virus 10 7 Yes Oseltamivir   10 mg/kg/day 5 8 No None — bid X 5, (healthy begin 4 hours controls) pre-virus, 12 hours apart *Placebo = Vehicle or PSS (physiological sterile saline)

Example 8—Testing for Inhibition of Influenza Replication in a Monkey

A cyno-monkey with influenza was administered a single subcutaneous dose of 2.25 mg/kg of an exemplary stapled peptide. Results are shown in FIG. 2. Drug levels were measureable at 96 hours (4 days), the last time point assessed, with a 13 hour half-life and mean residence time of 21 hours. Simulated exposure in lung tissue indicate that a persistent, high levels of drug can be achieved following a single subcutaneous injection. Vd was estimated from monkey subcutaneous plasma pharmacokinetic parameters. Lung absorption rate (k01) was calculated from monkey subcutaneous plasma absorption rate and rat IV lung absorption rate. Lung elimination rate (k10) was scaled from mouse IV lung elimination rate.

Example 9—Dose-Range Determination Against an Influenza A Virus Infection in Mice

A dose-range determination assay was used to evaluate the antiviral activity of Aileron peptide 1 (AP1) a peptidomimetic macrocycle of the invention, against an influenza A/Solomon Islands/3/2006 (H₁N₁) virus infection in mice.

Animals:

Female 18-20 g BALB/c mice were obtained from Charles River Laboratories (Wilmington, Mass.). The mice were quarantined for 72 hours before use and maintained on a Teklad Rodent Diet (Harlan Teklad) and tap water.

Virus:

Influenza A/Solomon Islands/3/2006 (H₁H₁) virus was obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Atlanta, Ga.). The virus was adapted to replicate in the lungs of BALB/c mice with 7 sequential passages in mice. The virus was plaque purified in MDCK cells, and a virus stock was prepared by growth in MDCK cells.

Compound:

Aileron peptide 1 was prepared in a PEG-based vehicle and then administered.

Experimental Design:

Animal numbers and study groups are described in Table 12. Groups of mice were treated by intraveneous injection daily for 5 days with 2, 4, 8, and 12 mg/kg doses of Aileron peptide 1 beginning 4 hours pre-infection. Control groups included mice treated with 10 mg/kg/day of oseltamivir orally (by gavage) twice per day at 12 hours intervals, beginning 4 hours post-infection, or placebo (15 mice) treated with PSS administered intraveneously for 5 days at 2.5 mL/kg. Five non-treated normal control mice were maintained for weight comparison. For the influenza virus challenge, mice were anesthetized by i.p. injection of ketamine/xylazine (50 mg/kg/5 mg/kg) prior to the challenge by the intranasal route with approximately 1×10⁵ (3×LD₅₀) CCID₅₀ of virus per mouse in a 90 μL inoculum volume.

Mice were weighed prior to treatment and then every other day thereafter to assess the effects of treatment on ameliorating weight loss due to virus infection. All mice groups were observed for morbidity and mortality through day 21 post-infection.

Statistical Analysis:

Kaplan-Meier survival curves were generated and compared by the Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test followed by pairwise comparison using the Gehan-Breslow-Wilcoxon test in Prism 6.0e (GraphPad Software, Inc.). Mean body weights were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's multiple comparisons tests using Prism 6.0e.

TABLE 12 Experimental Design for Example 9 Group Treatment # Infected Compound Dosage Schedule Oservations 1 Yes Placebo 2.5 mL/kg, i.v. qd x 5, Observed for (Vehicle beg 4 hr weight los and or PSS) pre-virus mortality 3 Yes AP1 12 mg/kg/day, i.v. through day 21 5 Yes AP1 8 mg/kg/day, i.v. 7 Yes AP1 4 mg/kg/day, i.v. 9 Yes AP1 2 mg/kg/day, i.v. 11 Yes Oseltamivir 10 mg/kg/day, p.o. Bid x 5, beg 4 hr pre-virus, 12 hr apart 10 No None Observed for normal weight gain (Normal control)

Results are shown in FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A peptidomimetic macrocycle or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle: (i) comprises two non-natural amino acids connected by a macrocycle-forming linker; (ii) has an amino acid sequence Xaa0-Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa6-Xaa7-Xaa8-Xaa9-Xaa10-Xaa11-Xaa12-Xaa13-Xaa14-Xaa15-Xaa16-Xaa17-Xaa18; and (iii) has at least about 60% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1b; wherein Xaa0 is —H or an N-terminal capping group; each Xaa1-Xaa10 and Xaa12-Xaa15 is independently an amino acid; Xaa11 is Ala; each Xaa16 and Xaa17 is independently absent or an amino acid; and Xaa18 is —NH₂, —OH, or a C-terminal capping group.
 2. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids Xaa5 and Xaa9.
 3. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the macrocycle-forming linker connects amino acids Xaa5 and Xaa12.
 4. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle is a compound of Formula (Ia):

wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, Xaa₁₂, and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁, and Xaa₁₂, are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-X₉-Leu₁₀-Ala₁₁-Val₁₂/Ala₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₉ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 1); each D and E is independently an amino acid; each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′ connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids; each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v is independently is 4; each w is independently 2, 3, or 4; and u is
 1. 5. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle is a compound of Formula (Ib):

wherein: each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, Xaa₁₁ and Xaa₁₃ is independently an amino acid, wherein at least three, four, five, or each of Xaa₆, Xaa₇, Xaa₈, Xaa₉, Xaa₁₀, and Xaa₁₁ are the same amino acid as the amino acid at the corresponding position of the sequence X₅-Thr₆-Leu₇-Leu₈-Phe₉-Leu₁₀-Ala₁₁-X₁₂, where each of X₅ and X₁₂ is independently an amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 2); each D and E is independently an amino acid; each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′ connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids; each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each R₃ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloaryl, or heterocycloaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v is 4; each w is 2, 3, or 4; and u is
 1. 6. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle is a compound of Formula (I):

wherein: each A, B, C, D, and E is independently an amino acid; each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo-; or at least one of R₁ and R₂ forms a macrocycle-forming linker L′ connected to the α position of one of said D or E amino acids; each L and L′ is independently a macrocycle-forming linker; each R₅ is independently halogen, alkyl, —OR₆, —N(R₆)₂, —SR₆, —SOR₆, —SO₂R₆, —CO₂R₆, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₆ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, a fluorescent moiety, a radioisotope or a therapeutic agent; each R₇ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with a D residue; each R₈ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with R₅, or part of a cyclic structure with an E residue; each v and w is independently an integer from 0-1000; u is an integer from 1-10; and each x, y and z is independently an integer from 0-10.
 7. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle comprises an α,α-disubstituted amino acid.
 8. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein each amino acid connected by the macrocycle-forming linker is an α,α-disubstituted amino acid.
 9. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein u is
 1. 10. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein x+y+z is 2, 3, 5 or
 6. 11. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each v is independently an integer from 0-10.
 12. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each v is
 4. 13. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein [D]_(v) is -Asn₄-Val₃-Glu₂-Nle₁ (SEQ ID NO: 4).
 14. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein [D]_(v) is -Asn₄-Val₃-Glu₂-Phe₁ (SEQ ID NO: 5).
 15. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each w is independently an integer from 0-10.
 16. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each w is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or
 8. 17. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each of the first two amino acids represented by E comprises an uncharged side chain or a negatively charged side chain.
 18. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein the first, second, third or fourth amino acid represented by E comprises a hydrophobic side chain.
 19. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 18, wherein the hydrophobic side chain is a small hydrophobic side chain.
 20. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each E is independently an amino acid selected from the group consisting of Ala, D-Ala, Aib, Lys, Leu, Ser, Glu, and Gln.
 21. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each L is independently alkylene, alkenylene, or alkynylene.
 22. The peptidomimetic macrocycle of claim 6, wherein each R₁ and R₂ is independently —H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl, unsubstituted or substituted with halo.
 23. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each R₁ and R₂ is independently alkyl.
 24. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 6, wherein each L and L′ independently has a formula -L₁-L₂-, wherein each L₁ and L₂ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, or [—R₄—K—R₄-]_(n), each being optionally substituted with R₅; each R₄ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene; each K is independently O, S, SO, SO₂, CO, CO₂ or CONR₃; and each n is independently an integer from 1-5.
 25. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 24, wherein each L₁ and L₂ is independently alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkylene, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene, each being optionally substituted with R₅.
 26. The peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 24, wherein each L₁ and L₂ is independently alkylene, alkenylene or alkynylene.
 27. The peptidomimetic macrocycle of claim 24, wherein each L₁ and L₂ is independently alkylene or alkenylene.
 28. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
 29. A method of treating influenza infection in a subject comprising administering to the subject the peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle has at least about 90% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1b.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the administering comprises administering subcutaneously or parenterally.
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the administering comprises administering a single dose of the peptidomimetic macrocycle.
 32. A method of inhibiting the activity of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of an influenza virus in a subject comprising administering to the subject the peptidomimetic macrocycle or the pharmaceutically-acceptable salt of claim 1, wherein the peptidomimetic macrocycle has at least about 90% sequence identity to a sequence of Table 1 b. 